A WORKING GUIDE TO THE ROOMS WE TEACH IN

Designing learning spaces

How space, participation, tools and routines get set up so the learning you intend is the one the room makes easy. Also what to spend on first when the budget won’t cover the walls.

Five sections and twenty-seven numbered items, in the order the decisions should be taken: what the room is for, how it will be used, what to spend on, how to write it down and how to tell whether it worked. Each item makes one claim, says what to do about it and names what to watch for.

Every item carries an evidence mark. One rests on moderate to strong research, four on moderate research and two on emerging work. The other twenty come from practice: what a small team saw across consults with more than thirty-five schools. The marks say which is which, so you know how much weight each item will bear.

WHO THIS IS FOR

For whoever decides what a room becomes

School leaders, heads of department and teachers on a redesign committee. Also the designers and suppliers they brief.

Most of what goes wrong with a school space is decided before anyone teaches in it. This guide is for the people in the room when that happens. It assumes no training in architecture and no budget beyond what a school can redirect from its own.

The five sections follow the order of work. First, what the room is for (A). Then how it will be used (B), what to spend on first (C) and how to write it down so a tender can’t bend it (D). Last, how to test it before buying and judge it once the novelty has gone (E).

The longform version carries four appendices: definitions, specification clauses to adapt, a set of measures with their instruments and notes on the evidence. Terms that belong to the wider study of learning environments, such as post-occupancy evaluation and hybrid teaching, are covered in the context primer on learning spaces and get one line here.

THE ORDER OF WORK

Five decisions, taken in order

Most redesigns start at the catalogue, which is decision three. The first two cost nothing but time.

FIG 01: FIVE DECISIONS AND THE LOOP BACK

The order matters more than any single answer. A room specified before anyone has named the activity gets specified by the supplier’s stock list. Furniture bought before a routine exists stays where the delivery team left it.

The loop at the end is the part most projects skip. What a room shows in its third term is the best brief you’ll ever get for the next one, and it only exists if someone wrote it down.

WHAT THE EVIDENCE CAN CARRY

The research is strongest where the catalogue is weakest

Light, air, heat and sound have solid evidence behind them. The fashionable features mostly have enthusiasm.

FIG 02: TWENTY-THREE CLAIMS, FROM THE EVIDENCE LEDGER

The evidence ledger on this site rates twenty-three common claims about classrooms. The two with moderate to strong evidence are both about the physical environment: light, air and temperature.

Seven are weak or not established, and most of those are what gets sold as innovation. That pattern shapes this guide. Where research exists it is cited and marked. Where it doesn’t, the advice comes from practice and says so.

HOW TO READ THE MARK ON EACH ITEM

Four marks

• MODERATE TO STRONG Several studies, large samples, consistent direction
• MODERATE Good studies, but fewer or in narrower settings
• EMERGING One or two careful studies, promising and not settled
• FROM PRACTICE Seen in consults with schools, not tested in a study

MODERATE TO STRONGOne of twenty-seven Section C opens with it: fix heat, air and light before layout. Behind it sit one large study of 153 classrooms and two reviews of many more.

MODERATEFour of twenty-seven Seating that matches the task, routines that make flexible rooms work, the cost of noise and the weak case for the fashionable features.

EMERGINGTwo of twenty-seven Copying another school’s room and the teacher’s use of space as a skill. Both rest on a few careful studies.

FROM PRACTICETwenty of twenty-seven What a team of five saw across more than thirty-five schools. Nobody has tested these in a trial, so each panel says what to watch for in case one doesn’t hold in your school.

The mark sits in the eyebrow of every item, with the section letter and number. The scale is the one the site’s evidence ledger uses, so a mark here means the same as a mark there.

Twenty from practice is a lot, and it is honest. Most of what matters in a redesign happens after the research stops: in tenders, timetables and the first lesson in a new room.

THE CLAIM

Design what people will do in the room. The furniture follows.

A room changes when the people in it agree how it will be used. Furniture only lowers the cost of that agreement.

This is the argument of the guide in two sentences. Every item that follows is one way of acting on it: name the activity, design the routine, spend on the conditions and the cheap levers, write the clause, then trial and wait.

Section A

Start from the activity

Five items on working out what the room is for before anyone opens a catalogue.

• A Start from the activity
• B Routines before furniture
• C What to spend on first
• D Specifications that survive procurement
• E Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Five items on working out what the room is for. None of them costs money, and all of them get skipped more often than not.

01

START FROM THE ACTIVITY

Section A

01

The activity is the brief

What should learners be doing in this room? Noticing, rehearsing, arguing, building, presenting and reflecting each want something different.

A room can’t be good in general. It can only be good for something. Rows make it easy to watch and hard to talk. Clusters make it easy to talk and hard to work alone. A room that claims to support every activity usually supports none of them well, because the activities want incompatible things.

So the first job is a sentence: what learners will do here, most of the time, that they can’t do as well anywhere else. Everything in the rest of this guide answers to that sentence.

A · 01 · MODERATE

Name the activity before the furniture

No layout is best at everything. Rows suit individual work and clusters suit talk, so the activity has to come first.

FIG 03: NO LAYOUT IS BEST AT EVERYTHING

The research on seating is small, and older than the debate about it. Wannarka and Ruhl (2008) reviewed eight studies and found that rows supported on-task behaviour during individual work, with the largest gains for the pupils most often off task. Clusters and circles supported interaction, which is what you want when the task is discussion. Neither arrangement won across the board.

So ask what learners will be doing this lesson, this week and this term before asking about arrangements. A room that hosts both kinds of work has to change between them cheaply, and Section B is about how.

Write one sentence naming the main activity and one naming the second. If the two want different layouts, plan the change between them before choosing any furniture.

A brief that lists every activity. “Collaboration, independent work, presentation and making” is a wish, and it hands the decision to whoever writes the tender.

MODERATE · Wannarka & Ruhl, 2008

A · 02 · FROM PRACTICE

Find the brief behind the brief

The request is rarely the need. Ask who uses the room now, for what and why.

FIG 04: THE OBVIOUS ANSWER WAS NEVER THE NEED

In five consults written up on this site, the obvious answer was never the need. New furniture would have fixed none of a library’s problems, which were light, sightlines and zoning. A hall that nobody knew how to use needed a first use before it needed a full fit-out. A computer lab in a school where every student had a device was popular mainly for its air-conditioning, and needed a purpose no other room offered. In a science room the students at the back couldn’t see, and an overhead mirror or a phone on a stand fixed that for almost nothing.

The request names a solution. The need is a problem, and you find it by watching the room in use.

Before agreeing to any brief, visit the room during a lesson. Ask who books it, what they do there, what they avoid doing and what they would miss if it closed.

A brief that already names products. If the request arrives in the vocabulary of the catalogue, the real problem hasn’t been found yet.

FROM PRACTICE · Five consults, written up on this site as five rooms, five judgements

A · 03 · FROM PRACTICE

Map who must see, hear and reach whom

Before any layout, mark where the teacher must see, which groups must hear each other and what everyone must be able to reach.

FIG 05: ONE TALL CUPBOARD HIDES A GROUP

A room’s layout decides who is visible to the teacher, and so who gets attended to. A tall cupboard, a pillar or a teacher’s counter fixed at one end can take a group out of sight without anyone deciding it should. In a primary science room the students at the back couldn’t see the demonstrations.

Sound has a map too. Groups that need to talk shouldn’t sit beside a group that needs quiet, and the teacher’s voice has to reach the far corner without shouting. Reach matters least on paper and most at 9 a.m. If the materials live in a locked cupboard at one end, every activity starts with a queue.

Draw the room from above. Mark where the teacher will usually stand and draw a line to every seat. Shade anything taller than 1.2 metres. Then mark where noisy and quiet work will happen and where the materials live.

Furniture that arrives taller than drawn. Shelving and trolleys are often chosen from photographs, and a few centimetres above eye level is enough to hide a group.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

A · 04 · EMERGING

Copy the reason, not the room

Another school’s room worked because of something you can’t see in the photograph.

FIG 06: THE FURNITURE TRAVELS. THE REASON DOESN’T.

Two qualitative studies point the same way. Kokko and Hirsto (2021) followed two Finnish schools and found that physical spaces became learning environments through the work of the people using them, with no ready-made model to copy. Daniels and colleagues (2019) studied four new-build secondary schools in the UK, starting from evidence that the way people live in a building can alter or reject what its designers intended.

In consults the same thing happened between schools. A redesigned classroom at one school became the template for others, whether or not they had the same problem. What travelled was the look of the room. The routine, the timetable and the staff who had been trained to use it stayed behind.

When you visit a room you admire, ask what it was designed for, what routine runs in it and who taught that routine. Copy the answers, then design your own room.

Visits that end in a photo album. If the only record of a visit is pictures of furniture, the reasons have already been lost.

EMERGING · Kokko & Hirsto, 2021 · Daniels et al., 2019

A · 05 · FROM PRACTICE

Decide what the room won’t be used for

A brief that only says yes grows until it describes every room in the school. The no keeps the budget for the problem the room actually has.

FIG 07: AN ILLUSTRATIVE ONE-LINE BRIEF

The useful brief says no as well as yes, and the no does as much work. In each of the five consults on this site something was declined: demolition for its own sake, building a whole hall at once, a better-looking lab with no purpose, chairs on wheels, a camera rig before a mirror.

The no also protects the room from uses that drift in later. A space for small-group talk shouldn’t become overflow storage in its second term, and someone has to be able to point to the sentence that says so.

Add a “not for” line to the brief, with two or three uses the room will turn away. Agree it with whoever timetables the room, since they will be the first to be asked for an exception.

Exams. A room set up for examinations a few weeks a year can stay arranged for examinations all year, because resetting it is somebody’s job and nobody’s priority.

FROM PRACTICE · Five consults, written up on this site

Section B

Routines before furniture

Six items on the habits that make a room move, and on teaching in one as a skill.

• A Start from the activity
• B Routines before furniture
• C What to spend on first
• D Specifications that survive procurement
• E Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Six items on the habits that make a room move. They cost lesson time more than money, and they decide whether the money spent in Section C changes anything.

02

ROUTINES BEFORE FURNITURE

Section B

02

An affordance needs a routine

Movable tables that never move make a conventional room with a higher price tag.

Tables on castors stayed in rows unless the class had three things: a routine for moving them, layouts to move them into and people whose job it was. Consults saw this again and again, and it matches what the research on flexible spaces finds when it looks closely.

The rules about who talks, when, to whom and with what standing are carried by convention more than by architecture. Conventions are far cheaper to change than a building. If a project has limited resources, I would spend them on routines before walls.

B · 01 · MODERATE

Pair every arrangement with a routine that uses it

A new room with the old routine gives you rows on castors. A layout changes behaviour only when a practice uses it.

FIG 08: ONLY A NEW ROOM WITH A NEW ROUTINE FLEXES

The research on flexible spaces keeps finding the people in the middle. Blackmore and colleagues (2011) found little research connecting built spaces directly to student outcomes, and pointed to teaching practice as the likely link. Kariippanon and colleagues (2021) reviewed six studies of flexible learning spaces and found benefits in rooms that paired student-centred teaching with varied furniture, a package the studies didn’t pull apart. French, Imms and Mahat (2020) studied four schools moving into new learning environments, and the strategies that helped were about culture, nudges, structure and expectations as much as the building.

Consults found the same thing in plainer terms. Tables on castors stayed in rows unless someone had decided which layouts the class would use and taught the class to get there.

For every arrangement in the plan, write down the routine that will use it and the person who will teach it. Where nobody can answer, buy less.

Flexibility as the brief. A room bought to be flexible, with no named routines, tends to settle into one layout within a term and stay there.

MODERATE · Blackmore et al., 2011 · Kariippanon et al., 2021 · French, Imms & Mahat, 2020

B · 02 · FROM PRACTICE

Teach the layout call in the first lesson

A room that can be rearranged in thirty seconds gets rearranged. One that takes five minutes does not.

FIG 09: FIVE STEPS, UNDER TWO MINUTES

Switching costs are real, and they fall at the worst moment: the start of a lesson, with thirty people waiting. A class that has practised moving between layouts pays that cost in seconds. A class that hasn’t pays it in minutes, and after a few lessons the teacher stops asking.

The layout call is the routine that makes moving cheap. Show the layout on a poster or a slide before anyone moves. Name it, using the name on the poster. Assigned movers shift the tables while everyone else follows with chairs. Lock the castors and check the sightlines. Then start the task.

Give each layout a name and a poster. Teach the call in the first lesson in the room, time it and practise until it takes under two minutes. Rotate two or three students a week as the crew who move first.

Layouts that need a manual. Anything that takes explaining will be used in one mode only, unless someone teaches the others.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

B · 03 · FROM PRACTICE

Agree a default layout and a reset

Every shared room needs a default, and three minutes at the end of each lesson to get back to it.

FIG 10: THE NEXT CLASS STARTS FROM THE DEFAULT

A room that changes during a lesson has to be somewhere at the start of the next one. Without an agreed default, each class inherits the last teacher’s layout and spends its first minutes undoing it. The teacher who keeps arriving to a mess is the one who stops moving the furniture.

The reset is the cheapest routine in this guide. Reserve the last three minutes. Return to the default, lock the castors, clear the surfaces and put materials back on their trolleys.

Choose the default with everyone who teaches in the room, and post it on the door as a small plan. Make the reset part of the lesson, run by the same crew who ran the layout call.

A default that is really the old room. If the default is rows facing the board, the reset will quietly win every argument about how the room is used.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

B · 04 · FROM PRACTICE

Write the rules of the room with the class

A flexible room raises questions a fixed one never asks: who moves the tables, who picks the layout, who gets the corner. A class can answer them if someone asks it.

FIG 11: FOUR SCREENS, AND STILL ONE FRONT

In 2019 we tested a room with four screens and several layouts in three Secondary 1 lessons. The layouts worked as layouts. Then the teacher spoke, and students facing away from her turned round to face her, even with a screen directly in front of them. Asked why, they said it was a sign of respect. The front of the room was a social norm, and the furniture couldn’t move it.

Our response was a protocol for writing the rules of the room with the class, including rules for the teacher. Students help draw up the rules. Each consequence is tied to what a student can learn from it, and the teacher faces consequences too.

Set a few routines in the first days. After a week, ask the class what works, revise the routines together and write the rules down, with a few for the teacher that students propose. Review them each term.

A contract signed on day one. Give students time to settle first, and don’t ask anyone to sign before there has been a discussion.

FROM PRACTICE · Three lessons in one room, 2019. Observations, not findings.

B · 05 · FROM PRACTICE

Give each part of the room a name and a job

A room with zones needs words for them. Campfire, watering hole and cave tell everyone what each part is for.

FIG 12: ONE ROOM, THREE KINDS OF WORK

Thornburg (2013) named three settings for learning that people recognise at once. At the campfire one speaks and many listen. At the watering hole peers learn from each other informally. In the cave someone works alone and quietly. The names are metaphors, with no evidence behind them as categories. They earn their place as vocabulary: a class that knows the words can be sent to the right part of the room in one sentence.

Zones also settle arguments before they start. The quiet corner is quiet because it is the cave, and everyone agreed that in week one.

Name the zones the plan creates and put each name where its work happens. Three is enough for most rooms.

Zones that exist only on the plan. If the cave sits beside the campfire with nothing between them, the name won’t keep it quiet. Distance helps, and so do partitions under 1.2 metres.

FROM PRACTICE · Thornburg, 2013

B · 06 · EMERGING

Treat the teacher’s use of space as a skill

Where a teacher stands, moves and sits shapes who gets help. It can be learned, and it can be seen.

FIG 13: ONE LESSON, MARKED EVERY TWO MINUTES

Two recent studies treat a teacher’s use of space as something that can be studied and developed. Yan and colleagues (2022) tracked teachers’ positions in 101 classes in open learning spaces and mapped them to kinds of spatial pedagogy: supervisory, interactional, collaborative and authoritative. Mahat and Loh (2024) followed teachers in one Singapore secondary school through professional learning about space, and found their view of their own spatial competence changed.

Teachers notice it themselves. In the 2019 tests each teacher started at centre stage and drifted to one side, to wherever they could see every student. One said she was unsure where to stand.

Ask a colleague to mark your position on a floor plan every two minutes for one lesson, coded as at the front, among students, between groups or at the desk. Compare a lesson in the old layout with one in the new.

A single map. One lesson shows a habit or an accident, and only a few maps over a term tell you which.

EMERGING · Yan et al., 2022 · Mahat & Loh, 2024

Section C

What to spend on first

Six items on where money changes most: the air and the sound first, then the cheap things that hold an old habit in place.

• A Start from the activity
• B Routines before furniture
• C What to spend on first
• D Specifications that survive procurement
• E Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Six items on where money changes most. The evidence says the air, the heat, the light and the sound. Practice adds the cheap items that hold an old habit in place.

03

WHAT TO SPEND ON FIRST

Section C

03

Spend where the evidence is, then where the habit is

Fix the conditions first. Then buy the unglamorous items that each remove one specific friction.

The physical conditions of a room have the strongest evidence of any design factor, and they are the hardest to fix later. A room that is too hot, too stuffy or too echoey will defeat any layout.

After that, the cheapest items in a classroom tend to change behaviour most, because each one removes a specific friction or dissolves a specific norm. The showpieces come last, if at all. They are sold with more confidence than the research behind them can carry.

C · 01 · MODERATE TO STRONG

Fix heat, air and light before layout

Light, temperature and air quality carried about half the effect of classroom design on pupils’ progress.

FIG 14: AFTER BARRETT ET AL., 2015 · 153 UK CLASSROOMS

A large study of classroom design and learning followed 3,766 pupils in 153 classrooms in 27 UK primary schools. Barrett and colleagues (2015) found that differences between classrooms explained about 16% of the variation in pupils’ progress over a year. About half of that effect came from naturalness: light, temperature and air quality. Individualisation and the level of stimulation accounted for about a quarter each.

Reviews of the separate factors point the same way. Children worked through school tasks faster in cooler classrooms (Wargocki et al., 2019) and in better-ventilated ones (Wargocki et al., 2020).

Most of these studies were done in temperate climates, and tropical classrooms are under-studied. In a hot country you may not need a study: the computer lab that gets booked for its air-conditioning is telling you the same thing.

Before any layout work, walk the room at 2 p.m. on a hot day. Check the temperature, how stuffy it feels with the door shut and where glare falls on the screens. Fix those first, and budget for them before furniture.

Air-conditioning as the whole answer. A sealed, cooled room with poor ventilation trades one problem for another, so ask about fresh air as well as temperature.

MODERATE TO STRONG · Barrett et al., 2015 · Wargocki et al., 2019 · Wargocki et al., 2020

C · 02 · MODERATE

Plan the sound before you take a wall out

Noise harms attainment, echo makes lessons harder to follow and opening up a room tends to make both worse.

FIG 15: SCHEMATIC · MORE CLASSES, LESS SPEECH HEARD

Shield and Dockrell (2008) found that noise inside and outside London primary schools was linked to lower test scores. Klatte and colleagues (2013) reviewed the effects of noise and reverberation on children and found them more vulnerable than adults: they need a quieter room and less echo to follow speech.

Open plans tend to make both worse. A review of open-plan primary classrooms found noise a particular problem in large spaces without acoustic treatment (Shield et al., 2010). Mealings and colleagues (2015) tested kindergarten children in four classrooms, from enclosed to fully open-plan. The bigger rooms were noisier, and the children heard speech less accurately as the noise rose.

Before removing a wall or joining two rooms, ask for an acoustic assessment. Where group work will raise the noise, budget for wall and ceiling panels, and specify a test before and after they go up.

Hard floors, high ceilings and glass. Halls and refurbished rooms often have all three, and they look best in exactly the photographs that sell the design.

MODERATE · Shield & Dockrell, 2008 · Klatte et al., 2013 · Shield et al., 2010 · Mealings et al., 2015

C · 03 · FROM PRACTICE

Buy the lever before the showpiece

Somewhere to put bags, a small mobile desk for the teacher and power from the ceiling did more to change rooms than any showpiece.

FIG 16: EACH CHEAP ITEM REMOVES ONE HABIT

The cheapest items changed behaviour most, and each one worked by removing a specific friction or a specific norm. While bags sit under the tables, the tables don’t move, so storage for bags turns “my table” into a shared surface. A small mobile desk and wireless projection untether the teacher, and the front of the room goes with them. Power that pulls down from the ceiling means the sockets on the wall stop deciding the layout.

Regular shapes belong on the same list. They cost less than clever shapes and combine into more layouts, which is the next item.

Before budgeting for anything visible, list the habits you want to change and the friction that holds each one in place. Buy the item that removes the friction, and only then open the catalogue.

Screens first. Interactive panels and extra screens often arrive before anyone has named the activity that needs them. Name the activity. If none needs the device, neither does the room.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

C · 04 · FROM PRACTICE

Choose regular shapes at one height

Squares and rectangles combine into more layouts than trapezoids and curves. Tables that meet at one height make one surface.

FIG 17: ONE TABLE, FOUR LAYOUTS

A 70 cm square table fits a personal learning device and a book side by side. One makes a desk, two make a pair, four make a group and a line of them makes a row for a test. Trapezoids and curves look more interesting in a catalogue and combine into fewer arrangements, which is the opposite of what a flexible room needs.

Height matters as much as shape. Tables and trolleys at the same height, 75 cm for sitting and 105 cm for standing, should line up flush with no legs in the way, so that two tables make one surface. In primary classrooms a smaller table of 60 to 65 cm does the same job at a child’s scale.

Choose one table size for each school level and one or two heights for the whole room. Where two sizes are ordered, make them look different, with a different stain or plywood, so layout instructions are easy to follow.

Corner legs that aren’t at the corners. A leg set in from the edge stops two tables meeting, and nobody notices until the first group tries to push them together.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation and the specification library

C · 05 · FROM PRACTICE

Mobile tables, yes. Chairs on wheels, no.

Mobility should follow the teacher’s choices. A chair that rolls makes its own.

FIG 18: WHAT SHOULD MOVE, AND WHAT SHOULDN’T

In a lower primary classroom the brief included furniture that regrouped quickly. The tables went on locking castors. The chairs didn’t, for safety. A chair on wheels moves whenever a child leans back, and the room rearranges itself around the least settled person in it.

The same thinking runs through the rest of the furniture: one job per item, done well, and then perhaps a second. Furniture that did three jobs usually did all three a little badly, and often settled into doing one. Office furniture fails a classroom for similar reasons. It is sized for adults and built for one person at one desk, and its levers and adjustments distract.

Put locking castors on tables, trolleys and whiteboards. Choose chairs that are light, stackable and fastened together on delivery, so they move with a lift and stay put otherwise.

Multi-purpose furniture sold as the answer to a small room. Ask which of its jobs it will actually do most days, and judge it on that one.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

C · 06 · MODERATE

Treat the fashionable features as hypotheses

Standing desks, wobble seats, calming colours and learning-style zones are sold with more confidence than the research supports.

FIG 19: FIVE CATALOGUE CLAIMS, AND THEIR SUPPORT

Systematic reviews find little behind the features that sell redesigns. A review of standing desks in classrooms found they cut sitting time, and too few studies of attainment to support claims about learning (Minges et al., 2016). A review of seating that moves, such as stability balls, found mostly low- to moderate-quality studies and no clear effect on achievement, with some benefit for children with attention difficulties (Rollo et al., 2019). In a later classroom study, pupils were on task less often on stability balls than on chairs (Hulac et al., 2022).

Colour and walls follow the same pattern. Claims that blue calms and red energises run well ahead of the research on colour (Elliot, 2015). A careful laboratory study found heavily decorated walls distracted young children (Fisher et al., 2014), which is a reason for restraint. Zones for visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learners rest on learning styles, which have not been shown to improve learning (Pashler et al., 2008).

When a supplier or a visit sells a feature on its effect, ask for the study. If there isn’t one, treat the feature as a hypothesis: trial it with one class and decide on what you see.

“Research shows” with no reference. In this field it often means a case study of one enthusiastic school in its first term.

MODERATE · Minges et al., 2016 · Rollo et al., 2019 · Hulac et al., 2022 · Elliot, 2015 · Fisher et al., 2014 · Pashler et al., 2008

Section D

Specifications that survive procurement

Four items on writing down what you want so precisely that a tender can’t turn it into something else.

• A Start from the activity
• B Routines before furniture
• C What to spend on first
• D Specifications that survive procurement
• E Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Four items on writing down what the school wants so precisely that a tender can’t turn it into something else. This is where most good briefs are lost.

04

WRITE IT DOWN

Section D

04

A principle doesn’t survive procurement. A dimension does.

Values become whatever the supplier stocks. Clauses with dimensions, and the reasons for them, come back as ordered.

Procurement is a translation, and principles translate badly. A school asks for mobility and gets whatever the supplier happens to stock on castors. It asks for collaboration and gets a catalogue’s idea of a group table. The words were right. They just weren’t specific enough to rule anything out.

The fix is to write clauses a school can paste into a request for quotation: dimensions, materials, loads, how items fit together and how they’ll be checked, each with a sentence of reasoning.

D · 01 · FROM PRACTICE

Write the specification yourself

If the school doesn’t write the specification, the supplier will, from whatever is in stock.

FIG 20: ONE PRINCIPLE, WRITTEN TWO WAYS

Mobility written as a value comes back as whatever moves. Written as a clause, it comes back as a 70 by 70 cm table on castors with lockable brakes, bearing at least 120 kg, with legs flush at each corner so it lines up with its neighbours. The second version leaves the supplier nothing to decide that the school cares about.

Writing it yourself doesn’t mean writing it alone. Draft the clauses from the activity and the routines, then ask a supplier what is hard to meet and why. Change a clause only where their reason is better than yours.

Keep a short library of clauses for the items your rooms use most, with the quantity left blank. Appendix B has nineteen to start from. Put in your own counts and remove anything you don’t need.

Brand names and model numbers. They make the tender easy to write and hard to compete fairly, and the model may be discontinued before the second room is fitted out.

FROM PRACTICE · Specification library used in consults

D · 02 · FROM PRACTICE

Put the reason beside every number

A clause with its reason survives the next person who wants to change it. A bare number doesn’t.

FIG 21: CLAUSE, REASON AND CHECK

Numbers without reasons get value-engineered. A partition limit of 1.2 metres looks arbitrary until you write why: low enough for the teacher to see over, high enough to dampen sound and hold a sheet of work. A balustrade with a handrail at 100 cm and rails no more than 12 cm apart turns an unused raised platform into a zone people can actually use.

The reason also helps the school when a supplier offers an alternative, because the reason is the test. A table that fits a device and a book side by side passes, whatever its exact size. One that doesn’t fit them fails.

Write each clause in three parts: what to supply, why and how it will be checked on delivery. Keep the reason to one sentence.

Reasons that are really preferences. “Looks modern” is not a reason. If a reason doesn’t name an activity, a routine or a safety need, question the clause.

FROM PRACTICE · Specification library used in consults

D · 03 · FROM PRACTICE

Specify the test along with the item

If you can’t say how you’ll check it, you can’t tell whether you got it.

FIG 22: SCHEMATIC · TEST, INSTALL, TEST AGAIN

Some clauses can be checked by eye on delivery: whether four tables line up flush, whether chairs that came in pieces have been fastened together. Others need a test written into the order. Acoustic panels are the clearest case. Specify an assessment on site and a test before and after installation, so the spend can be justified and the next room planned from real numbers.

Loads belong in the clause too. In the specification library used in consults, a single table bears at least 120 kg, a double 240 kg and a long standing bench 360 kg. Those figures allow for students sitting on the furniture, which they will.

Write the check beside each clause: line up four on delivery day, sit on one, lock the castors and push. For acoustics and power, ask for a measured test before and after.

Sign-off at delivery by someone who wasn’t part of the design. Whoever checks the order needs the clause and its reason in hand.

FROM PRACTICE · Specification library used in consults

D · 04 · FROM PRACTICE

Adapt what’s sold before commissioning what isn’t

Off-the-shelf furniture is rarely sized for children. Bespoke costs more. The adapted middle needs someone who can brief a supplier.

FIG 23: BETWEEN THE CATALOGUE AND BESPOKE

Most furniture is designed for offices and homes. It is sized for adults and finished for lighter use, and it often comes with extras that distract children. Bespoke furniture fixes all of that, and it costs more, takes longer and needs a precise specification. Most schools end up in the middle: catalogue items adapted with a different height, castors, a fastened joint or a writable surface.

The middle path depends on people. Someone has to know what the activity needs, read a catalogue critically, talk to a supplier in their terms and check what arrives. Those skills can sit with one teacher or a small team, and they are worth developing on purpose.

Before going bespoke, ask a supplier what small changes they can make to a standard item. Before buying off the shelf, check the size against your students and the finish against a school day.

Adaptations nobody can repeat. Record what was changed and why, or the next order arrives as the unadapted item.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

Section E

Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Six items on borrowing first, building in steps and judging a room once the novelty has gone.

• A Start from the activity
• B Routines before furniture
• C What to spend on first
• D Specifications that survive procurement
• E Trial before you buy, measure after the novelty

Six items on finding out before spending and judging after the novelty. They are the hardest to keep to, because by this point everyone wants the room finished.

05

TRIAL AND MEASURE

Section E

05

Spend the first budget on finding out

A space with no settled use is a guess. Borrow, build the part you’re sure of and judge it in its third term.

Most school spaces should be built in increments, trialled and extended as uses emerge. The exceptions are the things that must be done properly once: air, light, sound and power. Everything else can start small, because a room in use teaches you more than any brief.

Then wait. Novelty flatters every redesign, and the published accounts mostly report the first term. A room judged on opening day is a room judged on its photographs.

E · 01 · FROM PRACTICE

Borrow before you buy. Two weeks is enough.

Two weeks of real lessons tells you what a catalogue can’t.

FIG 24: A TWO-WEEK TRIAL WITH ONE CLASS

A trial kit of borrowed furniture and portable technology lets a school test a layout in its own rooms before specifying anything. The kit used in consults held mobile tables in two sizes and at standing height, high stools, mobile pedestals, double-sided whiteboards, room dividers, portable projectors and speakers, wireless projection, portable power stations and portable air-conditioners.

Two weeks is enough if the trial has a shape. Before it starts, name the activity and agree what better will look like. In the first week, use the kit in at least three lessons with one class, teach the set-up routine in the first and time the set-up and the reset. In the second, try a second layout, ask students for three minutes of feedback and photograph the room in use. Then decide whether to buy, adapt or drop.

If no kit exists, build a small one with a neighbouring school: ten or so tables, a few whiteboards on castors, a wireless projection receiver and a power station. Lend it out on a fixed two-week loan.

Trials run only by the keenest teacher. Enthusiasm flatters the first class. If you can, repeat the trial with a colleague who wasn’t asking for the change.

FROM PRACTICE · Trial kit and test protocol used in consults

E · 02 · FROM PRACTICE

Build for the first term, not the fifth year

Build for the uses you are sure of and add the rest when real uses appear. The exceptions are the things that must be done properly once.

FIG 25: INCREMENTS ON A FOUNDATION DONE ONCE

A large multi-purpose space in a secondary school was set up for examinations and empty most of the time. Nobody knew how it would be used, so the recommendation was a first build for discussion and collaboration only, for about fifty students in two zones. It came with a balustrade for the unused platform, pull-down power from the ceiling and acoustic panels. Further work would follow only when clear uses emerged.

The split matters. Air, light, sound and power are expensive to redo and hard to add piecemeal, so they are done properly once. Furniture, zones and technology can grow with use.

Divide the plan into what must be done once and what can be added. Fund the first fully. Spend a small part of the second, then watch the room for a term before spending more.

A first build too small to be used. An increment has to be big enough for real lessons, or nobody books the room and there is nothing to learn from.

FROM PRACTICE · One consult, written up on this site

E · 03 · FROM PRACTICE

Take a baseline before anything changes

Without a measure of the old room, there’s nothing to compare the new one with.

FIG 26: FIVE MEASURES, BEFORE AND AFTER

Four quick measures cover most of what a school needs to know. Utilisation is how often the room is used, for how long and for what. Engagement is how many students are working, talking about the task or moving with purpose. Range of practice is how many layouts get used across lessons and where the teacher stands. Perception is what students and teachers think about comfort, ease of use and learning. Learning outcomes come fifth, and only where a fair comparison is possible.

Each has a simple instrument, set out in Appendix C: a usage log for a week, an observation sweep every five minutes for one lesson, a position map and a five-item pulse survey.

Take all four measures in the old room in the term before the change. Repeat them at six months and at a year, with the same instruments and, where possible, the same classes.

Outcomes claimed from an unfair comparison. A new room usually arrives with new timetables or new enthusiasm, and either could explain a change in results.

FROM PRACTICE · Measures used in consults

E · 04 · FROM PRACTICE

Judge it in Term 3, not on opening day

Novelty flatters every redesign. Wait until it has worn off before you say what the room did.

FIG 27: ILLUSTRATIVE · THE QUESTION A YEAR ANSWERS

Most published accounts of redesigned classrooms report early enthusiasm, and few report what happened after the first term. Careful studies do find real differences. Kariippanon and colleagues (2019) observed students in both flexible and traditional classrooms across nine secondary schools, and found more interaction, collaboration and engagement in the flexible ones, where the teaching was also more student-centred. A study of that kind can’t separate the room from the teaching that came with it, or from the novelty of the change.

So time the judgement. Look at six months, when the novelty has faded, and again at a year, when the room has met every part of the school calendar. The evidence ledger on this site marks the claim that redesigns show early gains that fade as practice: a pattern seen often and never properly measured.

Agree the review dates before the room opens: a baseline, six months and a year. Put them in the calendar of whoever owns the room, and decide in advance what result would make you change it.

The opening-day photograph. It is the most widely shared evidence about any redesign and the least informative.

FROM PRACTICE · Kariippanon et al., 2019

E · 05 · FROM PRACTICE

Hold a design for a year before you redesign it

Redesign every term and you never find out what worked.

FIG 28: HOLD, THEN REVIEW ON A SCHEDULE

A room that changes every term can’t be judged, because nothing stays still long enough to measure. Each change resets the novelty, and each new layout needs new routines before it can be used well. The room ends up permanently in its first term.

Holding a design isn’t the same as freezing it. Layouts still change within a lesson. What holds is the plan: the furniture, the zones, the default and the routines. Review those on a schedule, and decide at each review what stays fixed and what keeps changing.

Hold the plan for a year. At six months, adjust routines and small items only. At a year, decide what to keep, change or copy to another room. Every year or two, review the design as a whole.

Redesigns prompted by a complaint in the first month. Early complaints are often about routines that haven’t settled yet, and changing the room resets them.

FROM PRACTICE · Consult observation, not a study

E · 06 · FROM PRACTICE

Write down what you still don’t know

The record of a redesign should end with its open questions. Ours mostly stops at the first term, and says so.

FIG 29: WHAT THE RECORD SHOWS, AND WHERE IT STOPS

Over about five years a team of five of us consulted more than thirty-five schools on classrooms, libraries, laboratories, halls and corridors. The process, the layouts and the specifications are in use, and a trial kit lets schools test before they buy. That much is on record.

What I can’t tell you is what changed a year on. We didn’t follow most schools past the first term of their redesign, and I have no systematic evidence of how those rooms are used now, whether teaching changed or whether learning did. This guide warns about that gap in everyone else’s work, and our own record mostly stops at the same point.

End every redesign record with three lists: what was done, what was measured and what is still unknown. Share the third list with the next school that asks to visit.

Case studies that read as success stories. If a write-up has no open questions, it was written too early or too kindly.

FROM PRACTICE · Designing the room around the learning, a case on this site

06

PUTTING IT TO WORK

06

Putting it to work

The questions to ask before a room changes, and the order to ask them in.

The twenty-seven items reduce to a short sequence of questions. Ask them in order, and stop where nobody has an answer. That is where the project’s next piece of work is.

BEFORE THE NEXT REFURBISHMENT

Seven questions, in order

• A What will learners be doing here, most of the time?
• A Who must see, hear and reach whom?
• B Which routine will use each arrangement, and who will teach it?
• C Are the heat, the air, the light and the sound right?
• C Which habit does each item remove?
• D Could a supplier deliver the wrong thing and still meet the clause?
• E What will we measure before, at six months and at a year?

The questions come from the site’s position on learning spaces, the twenty-one things it would tell a school leader and the items in this guide. A question nobody can answer is the most useful result of the exercise. Where nobody can say which routine will use an arrangement, buy less.

AN ILLUSTRATION

The same budget, spent in two orders

Two rooms that cost the same. One was bought from the catalogue, the other for a named activity.

FURNITURE FIRST

Bought from the catalogue

• Trapezoid tables on castors
• An interactive panel on each wall
• No storage for bags
• Sockets left on the wall
• Opened with a photograph, judged in week two

ACTIVITY FIRST

Bought for a named activity

• Ventilation and acoustic panels, tested
• Square tables at one height
• Bag storage and ceiling power
• A layout call taught in lesson one
• A baseline, then reviews at six months and a year

The first room looks more modern on opening day. By Term 3 its tables are back in rows, because nothing was done about the bags, the sockets or the routine, and its panels are used as one screen at the front. The second room looks plainer and works harder, and its school has measures to show what changed.

Name the activity. Fix the air and the sound.

Teach the routine before you buy the furniture.

Borrow first, judge in Term 3 and write down what you still don’t know.

END

Before the next refurbishment

Ask which routine will use each arrangement, and who will teach it. Where nobody can answer, buy less.

• WEB geraldajam.com
• THE POSITION Learning spaces
• THE PATTERNS Twenty-one arrangements
• THE EVIDENCE The evidence ledger

Reference layer

Appendix

Appendix A

Definitions

The terms this guide uses, in the sense it uses them.

01Activity What learners are meant to be doing in a space: noticing, rehearsing, arguing, building, presenting or reflecting. The starting point of every brief in this guide.

02Affordance What a feature of a room makes easy. A table on castors affords regrouping. Whether regrouping happens depends on a routine.

03Baseline A measure of how the old room is used, taken before anything changes, so the new room has something to be compared with.

04Default layout The arrangement a shared room starts each lesson in and returns to at the end, agreed by everyone who teaches there.

05Flush Lined up edge to edge at the same height, with no legs or frames in the way, so that two items make one surface.

06Layout call The routine for moving a class from one named layout to another: show, name, move, lock and start, in under two minutes.

07Naturalness The group of design factors covering light, temperature and air quality in a large study of classroom design (Barrett et al., 2015).

08Novelty effect The lift in engagement that follows any change to a room, which fades as the change becomes ordinary.

09Post-occupancy evaluation A structured review of a building once people are using it. The context primer on learning spaces covers it in full.

10Reset The last few minutes of a lesson, spent returning a shared room to its default.

11Reverberation Sound that keeps reflecting off hard surfaces after its source has stopped. It makes speech harder to follow, for children especially (Klatte et al., 2013).

12Routine An agreed, practised way of doing something in a room, such as moving the furniture, forming groups or using a zone.

13Sightline An unobstructed line of view, usually between the teacher and each student, or between students and a shared display.

14Specification clause A paragraph in a tender that states what to supply in measurable terms: size, material, load, fit and how it will be checked.

15Zone A part of a room set aside for one kind of work and named for it, such as the campfire, the watering hole or the cave (Thornburg, 2013).

Appendix B

Specification clauses to adapt

Clauses to adapt for a request for quotation. Sizes are width × depth × height in centimetres, measured from the floor to the top of the item with its castors. Put in your own quantities, remove what you don’t need and keep the reason beside every number. Name no brands: describe the item and let suppliers compete to meet it.

Appendix C

Measures and their instruments

Simple instruments a school can run itself. They were drafted for practice and have not been validated as research tools, so use them to compare a room with itself over time.

01Utilisation How often the room is used, for how long and for what. Instrument: a usage log for one week, recording day, period, class, activity, layout and set-up time.

02Engagement How many students are working, talking about the task or moving with purpose. Instrument: an observation sweep every five minutes for one lesson, counting students who are listening, working alone, talking about the task in pairs or groups, moving with purpose or off task.

03Range of practice How many layouts are used across lessons, and where the teacher stands while teaching. Instrument: a position map. On a floor plan, mark the teacher’s position every two minutes and code it as at the front, among students, between groups or at the desk.

04Perception What students and teachers think of comfort, ease of use and learning in the room. Instrument: the five-item pulse survey below, answered on a four-point scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree.

05Learning outcomes Only where a clear and fair comparison is possible. Treat any result with caution, since a new room rarely changes alone.

06Student pulse survey I can see and hear what I need to in this room. It is easy to work with others in this room. I can find a place in this room that suits the task. Moving the furniture is quick and doesn’t waste lesson time. I learn better in this room than in a usual classroom.

07Teacher reflection after three lessons Which activity did the room make easier? Which did it make harder? How long did set-up and reset take? What did students do differently? What would you change first?

08When to look Baseline: a usage log, one observation sweep, one position map and the pulse survey. Six months: repeat all four, then hold a thirty-minute review with the people who use the room. One year: repeat again, and decide what to keep, change or copy. Every year or two: review the design as a whole, including what should stay fixed and what should keep changing.

Appendix D

Notes on the evidence

How the marks were set, where the evidence comes from and what it can’t tell you.

01How the marks were set The four marks use the scale of the evidence ledger on this site. An item takes the mark of the claim its advice depends on. Where an item rests on research for one part and practice for another, the mark follows the part the advice needs.

02Where the research comes from Most of the studies cited were done in the UK, continental Europe, Australia and the United States, many of them in primary schools and temperate climates. Findings on heat and ventilation may not carry over directly to tropical classrooms, which are under-represented in this research.

03Flexible spaces come bundled The studies of flexible learning spaces reviewed by Kariippanon and colleagues (2021) treat the furniture and the student-centred teaching that arrived with it as one package, and don’t separate them. This guide reads that as support for pairing rooms with routines. It doesn’t read it as evidence that furniture works on its own.

04Where the practice comes from The twenty items marked from practice draw on about five years of consults with more than thirty-five schools by a team of five, including a set of prototype lessons in 2019, consult write-ups, a specification library, a trial kit and a set of layouts. They are observations. None was tested against a comparison group.

05Singapore The consults took place in Singapore schools from about 2019, while every secondary student received a personal learning device, Full Subject-Based Banding moved students between groups of different sizes for different subjects and blended learning made home-based learning days routine. One study cited here was done in a Singapore secondary school (Mahat & Loh, 2024). No school or officer is named, and institutional detail is generalised.

06What was left out Some claims common in guidance on learning spaces were left out because no primary source could be found, or because the source said something narrower than the claim. Outcomes reported by individual schools were left out where they couldn’t be confirmed. No products or suppliers are named.

07What isn’t known Whether the gains seen in redesigned rooms last past the first year. How much of what gets attributed to space belongs to novelty and to the enthusiasm of the staff who volunteered. Whether flexibility is a real good or mostly a way of deferring a decision. These are open questions on the site’s learning-spaces page, and this guide doesn’t settle them.

08Where else to look The context primer on learning spaces covers post-occupancy evaluation, hybrid teaching and the wider research on open and flexible learning environments. The evidence ledger rates twenty-three claims about classrooms. The pattern library sets out twenty-one ways to arrange one classroom.

Source trail

References

Every source this guide cites. Entries follow APA 7th edition, and links point to the DOI or the publisher. Each was checked against a DOI registry or the publisher’s record while the guide was written. The twenty items marked from practice rest on what consults observed. Two of them cite a source for context, and Appendix D says where the rest of the practice comes from.

1. Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2015.02.013
2. Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. https://dro.deakin.edu.au/articles/report/Research_into_the_connection_between_built_learning_spaces_and_student_outcomes/21003409
3. Daniels, H., Tse, H. M., Stables, A., & Cox, S. (2019). Design as a social practice: The experience of new-build schools. Cambridge Journal of Education, 49(2), 215–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2018.1503643
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8. Kariippanon, K. E., Cliff, D. P., Lancaster, S. J., Okely, A. D., & Parrish, A.-M. (2019). Flexible learning spaces facilitate interaction, collaboration and behavioural engagement in secondary school. PLOS ONE, 14(10), Article e0223607. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223607
9. Kariippanon, K. E., Cliff, D. P., Ellis, Y. G., Ucci, M., Okely, A. D., & Parrish, A.-M. (2021). School flexible learning spaces, student movement behavior and educational outcomes among adolescents: A mixed-methods systematic review. Journal of School Health, 91(2), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12984
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11. Kokko, A. K., & Hirsto, L. (2021). From physical spaces to learning environments: Processes in which physical spaces are transformed into learning environments. Learning Environments Research, 24(1), 71–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10984-020-09315-0
12. Mahat, M., & Loh, C. E. (2024). Teachers’ changing perspectives of their spatial competencies: A case study of professional learning in Singapore. Teaching and Teacher Education, 152, Article 104797. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104797
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23. Yan, L., Martinez-Maldonado, R., Zhao, L., Deppeler, J., Corrigan, D., & Gašević, D. (2022). How do teachers use open learning spaces? Mapping from teachers’ socio-spatial data to spatial pedagogy. In LAK22: 12th International Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference (pp. 87–97). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3506860.3506872

End of the guide

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