Clusters and Concepts A to Z

Writing research observations on separate notes and grouping them by similarity, so that themes emerge from the data rather than from prior categories. It derives from Kawakita's KJ method.

Also called affinity diagram · KJ method · clustering

Looking at how other fields solve a similar underlying problem, then adapting their solutions.

Also called analogies and benchmarking · analogy thinking

A grid that sets out how many items or marks an assessment will give to each content area at each cognitive level, so that it samples the curriculum as intended.

Also called table of specifications · test specification grid

Listing the attributes of an existing solution, such as its parts, features or qualities, and generating alternatives for each to find improvements.

Defining a preferred future, then working backwards to identify the milestones and actions needed to reach it from the present.

Acting out a situation physically, in a real or mocked-up setting, to understand it and generate ideas through the body rather than discussion alone.

Also called role-play · acting out

A group session for generating many ideas quickly, without judging them. Variants include figuring storming, where the group generates ideas as a named person would, and negative brainstorming (see reverse brainstorming).

Also called ideation session · special brainstorming · figuring storming

A silent, written form of brainstorming. In 6-3-5, six people each write three ideas in five minutes, then pass their sheet on, for six rounds, producing up to 108 ideas.

Also called 6-3-5 method · method 635

Participants sort cards naming pieces of content into groups that make sense to them. In open sorts they name the groups. In closed sorts the groups are given. Hybrid sorts allow both.

Also called open · closed and hybrid card sort

A one-page form that describes a single idea in enough detail to compare it with others: name, problem, users, how it works, value and risks.

Also called concept poster · concept sheet

A diagram of concepts connected by labelled links, so each link reads as a statement. Novak developed concept maps for teaching. Designers use concept models to agree the entities a product deals with.

Also called concept model · conceptual model

Comparing options against agreed criteria in a matrix. In the Pugh method, each option is scored better (+), the same (0) or worse (−) than a reference option. Weighted scoring multiplies each score by the criterion's importance.

Also called Pugh matrix · decision matrix · weighted scoring · rating matrix

Fast, rough drawings of possible solutions, made to explore options and communicate ideas rather than to look finished.

Also called thumbnail sketching

A table that checks each intended learning outcome is taught through suitable activities and assessed by tasks that require the same performance (Biggs, 1996).

Also called alignment matrix · course alignment map

A visual summary of the factors surrounding a challenge, such as trends, technology, actors, needs, uncertainties and rules, used to see the whole situation before choosing a focus.

Also called context map

A screen-by-screen or scene-by-scene plan for an e-learning module or video, specifying text, visuals, audio and interactions before production.

Also called e-learning storyboard · instructional storyboard

A fast sketching exercise from the design sprint: eight different ideas in eight minutes, one per panel of a folded sheet.

Also called eight-up sketching

Creating artefacts from imagined futures, such as a product, an advertisement, a news article or a school notice, to make a possible future concrete and open it to discussion.

Also called speculative design · diegetic prototypes

A workshop in which participants sketch solutions individually, present them, receive critique and revise, in rounds, then converge on a shared concept.

Also called charrette · sketch-and-critique

A map of the actors around a service and what flows between them, such as information, money, data and services.

Also called value network map · value relationship map · business ecosystem map

A one-page summary of what a user says, thinks, does and feels, often with their pains and gains, built from research.

Also called say · think · do · feel map

A sketched canvas from Presto Sketching for describing a future product experience: who it is for, their situation and need, what they experience and the value they get.

A map of a person's experience across several products and services over a broad activity, rather than within one product.

Also called ecosystem journey map

A synthesis of research, trends and strategy into a picture of the experience a product or service should deliver, with first concepts and design principles. Telekom's target picture documents it on six posters.

Also called target picture · experience target picture · north star vision

Choosing game mechanics, such as points, levels, challenges and choices, by mapping them to the behaviour and experience they should produce, and to the learning they should support. The MDA framework separates mechanics, the dynamics they create, and the aesthetic experience (Hunicke et al., 2004).

Also called mechanics · dynamics · aesthetics (MDA) mapping

Visual templates from Presto Sketching (Crothers, 2017) for imagining where users want to get to and what stands in the way. The superhero booth shows a user transformed, build-a-bridge shows steps from today to a future state, and goal barriers shows obstacles to clear.

Also called superhero booth · build-a-bridge and goal barriers sketches

A canvas based on Eyal's hook model, describing a cycle of trigger, action, variable reward and investment that can form a habit of use.

Also called hook model

Problems and insights rewritten as open questions beginning "How might we", which invite many answers without fixing one.

Also called HMW · opportunity questions

Two Presto Sketching templates (Crothers, 2017) for prioritising. The hurdle track shows obstacles in order along a track to a goal. The resource tank shows how limited resources are divided among priorities.

A two-by-two grid that plots ideas by expected impact and the effort needed, to decide what to do first. The 2x2 form also works with other pairs of axes.

Also called 2x2 matrix · value–effort matrix · prioritisation matrix

Short statements that turn observations into an understanding of why something happens, which a design team can act on.

Also called key insights · findings statements

A way of describing what people are trying to achieve in a situation, independent of any product, as "jobs" with functional, personal and social sides (Christensen et al., 2016).

Also called JTBD · job statements · job stories · job map · job canvas

A visual timeline of one user's experience, showing stages, actions, thoughts, feelings, pain points and opportunities.

Also called customer journey map · user journey map · learner journey map

Classifying features by how they affect satisfaction: basic needs (expected, cause dissatisfaction if missing), performance features (more is better) and delighters (unexpected, cause satisfaction if present) (Kano et al., 1984).

Also called Kano model

Planning a course as a sequence of activities classified by type of learning. ABC learning design (Young & Perović, UCL) uses six types from Laurillard: acquisition, inquiry, practice, production, discussion and collaboration.

Also called ABC learning design · learning design cards

Describing the typical path by which understanding of a concept or skill grows, as a sequence of levels from novice to expert, based on research and student work.

Also called learning trajectory · construct map

A diagram that sets out, above a line, how people think about and carry out an activity and, below the line, what a product offers for each part, showing gaps (Young, 2008).

Also called mental model map

A diagram that radiates from a central topic into branches and sub-branches, used to explore ideas and their connections.

Also called spider diagram

A collage of images, colours, type, textures and words that sets a visual and emotional direction before detailed design.

Also called inspiration board

Breaking a problem into independent parameters, listing options for each, then combining one option from each parameter to generate many possible solutions (Zwicky, 1969).

Also called morphological box · Zwicky box

Sorting requirements into four groups: must have, should have, could have and won't have this time. It was developed by Clegg for the DSDM method.

Also called must · should · could · won't

A structured way to describe and pitch a concept by four questions: the need, the approach, the benefits per cost and the competition or alternatives. It was developed at SRI International.

Also called need · approach · benefits · competition

A tree that links a desired outcome to the opportunities (needs and pain points) found in research, the solutions for each, and the experiments to test them (Torres, 2021).

Also called OST

A profile of a type of user, based on research, describing goals, behaviours, frustrations and context. A proto-persona is an early version based on assumptions, to be checked with research.

Also called user profile · user profile canvas · learner persona · proto-persona

A one-sentence statement of a user, their need and the insight behind it, used in the d.school process to frame ideation.

Also called POV · POV in one sentence

Setting out the realistic options for addressing a policy problem, including doing nothing, and comparing them against agreed criteria.

Also called options appraisal

Defining the character a product should express, as a small set of attributes, so that design, copy and behaviour are consistent. Telekom uses a motives map that positions personas and products among emotional motives such as security, excitement and autonomy.

Also called motives map · brand personality · personality attributes

Setting out what a solution must do (functional) and the qualities it must have (non-functional, such as performance, security and accessibility), traced to their sources.

Also called requirements gathering · functional and non-functional requirements

Sharing what was seen in research as short stories about specific people and moments, so the team builds a shared picture before analysis. For narrative structures such as the hero's journey, see Shots and Cues B14.

Also called storytelling · story sharing · research playback

Generating ideas for the opposite of the goal, such as how to make a problem worse, then flipping each into a possible solution.

Also called negative brainstorming · anti-problem · worst possible idea

A formula for comparing ideas: reach × impact × confidence ÷ effort. It was popularised by Intercom.

Also called reach · impact · confidence · effort

A checklist of seven prompts for changing an existing product or process: substitute, combine, adapt, modify, put to another use, eliminate, reverse. It is usually credited to Bob Eberle, building on Alex Osborn's checklist.

Building several plausible, contrasting futures, often from two critical uncertainties, to test strategies against a range of conditions rather than one forecast.

Also called scenario building

A diagram that maps what users do at each step of a service against what staff and systems do in front of them, behind the scenes and in support. A future-state blueprint (see Deliver) uses the same form.

Also called as-is blueprint

A discussion technique in which a group looks at an idea from one perspective at a time, each represented by a coloured hat (de Bono, 1985).

Also called de Bono's hats

A sequence of frames, sketched or photographed, showing a person using a product, service or lesson over time, including the context and their feelings.

Also called storyboards

A chart comparing how much different offers provide on each factor users care about, drawn as value curves, used to find factors to raise, reduce, eliminate or create (Kim & Mauborgne, 2005). The buyer utility map is a companion tool that looks for blocks to value across the user's experience.

Also called blue ocean tool · value curve · buyer utility map

A single design artefact showing fonts, colours, buttons, icons and other interface elements in a candidate visual style, without a full page layout (Warren, 2012).

A diagram of the variables in a system and how they influence each other, showing feedback loops that reinforce or balance change.

Also called causal loop diagram · system diagram

A method for identifying patterns of meaning across qualitative data through systematic coding, in six phases (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Also called qualitative coding

A framework for discussing change as three overlapping patterns: the current system in decline (H1), emerging innovations in transition (H2) and a future system (H3) (Sharpe, 2013).

Also called 3H

A structured description of how an actor interacts with a system to reach one goal, including the main flow and alternative paths.

Also called use case specification

Short narratives of a specific user, in a specific situation, achieving a goal with a product, used to design and test whole flows.

Also called scenarios · narrative user stories

A canvas that matches a customer profile (jobs, pains, gains) with a value map (products and services, pain relievers, gain creators) to check fit (Osterwalder et al., 2014).

Also called VPC

A diagram that projects from the past and present into a widening range of futures: possible, plausible, probable and preferable (Voros, 2003).

Also called futures cone