Gerald Ajam

Library / Glossary

The context glossary

756 terms from the context primers: the professional vocabulary of education, each defined in the words of its primer.

The library

What each entry carries

  1. A definition, in the words of the guide the term comes from.
  2. The place in that guide where the term is referred to, so the definition can be read in context. A term from the guide’s field that the guide does not use is marked as such.
  3. Two or three works to follow up, drawn from the guide's own references.

The terms come from Understanding the Context of Education. For the other half of the vocabulary, see the craft glossary.

TermDefinitionReferred to inRead further
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4E cognition

A family of views holding that cognition is embodied, embedded (in an environment), enacted (through action) and extended (into tools and surroundings) (Newen et al., 2018).

  • Newen, A., De Bruin, L., & Gallagher, S. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of 4E cognition. Oxford University Press. doi
  • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
21st Century Competencies framework (SG)

Singapore’s framework with core values at the centre, social-emotional competencies around them, and outer competencies in thinking, communication and collaboration, and civic, global and cross-cultural literacy (Ministry of Education, Singapore, n.d.).

  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). 21st century competencies. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
  • Tan, J. P.-L., Koh, E., Chan, M., Costes-Onishi, P., & Hung, D. (2017). Advancing 21st century competencies in Singapore. Asia Society. asiasociety.org
360° video

Video recorded in every direction at once, which a viewer can look around in, usually through a headset. It gives a sense of place but little or no ability to act on the scene.

    A
    Ability grouping

    Placing students of similar attainment together, either in small groups within one class or in separate classes. Its effects depend on the form it takes and on whether the teaching changes (Steenbergen-Hu et al., 2016; Deunk et al., 2018).

    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
    • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
    • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
    Academic integrity

    The expectation that work submitted for assessment is the student's own and that sources and tools are acknowledged. It is a property of the whole assessment design, not only of a rule in a handbook.

    • Weber-Wulff, D., Anohina-Naumeca, A., Bjelobaba, S., Foltýnek, T., Guerrero-Dib, J., Popoola, O., Šigut, P., & Waddington, L. (2023). Testing of detection tools for AI-generated text. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 19, 26. doi
    • Lodge, J. M., Howard, S., Bearman, M., Dawson, P., & Associates. (2023). Assessment reform for the age of artificial intelligence. Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency. teqsa.gov.au
    • Liang, W., Yuksekgonul, M., Mao, Y., Wu, E., & Zou, J. (2023). GPT detectors are biased against non-native English writers. Patterns, 4(7), 100779. doi
    Academic learning time

    The time a student spends engaged on an academic task they can perform with high success. It was developed in the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study as a measure of learning in progress (Fisher et al., 2015).

    • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
    • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
    Acceleration and enrichment

    Two ways to serve highly able students, which many programmes combine: acceleration moves them ahead when ready, and enrichment goes broader and deeper while keeping them with their age group.

    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
    • Kim, M. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of enrichment programs on gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60(2), 102–116. doi
    • Warne, R. T. (2016). Publication bias currently makes an accurate estimate of the benefits of enrichment programs difficult: A postmortem of two meta-analyses using statistical power analysis [Unpublished manuscript]. ERIC. files.eric.ed.gov
    Access arrangements

    Adjustments to examination conditions, such as extra time, a separate room, enlarged print or a reader, that let candidates with SEN show what they know without changing what is assessed. In Singapore they are granted by the examinations board (Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board, n.d.).

    • Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board. (n.d.). Access arrangements. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from seab.gov.sg
    Accessibility and universal design of spaces

    Designing buildings, rooms and platforms so that everyone can reach and use them, from step-free routes to captioned video and screen-reader-friendly course sites. Beatty (2019) makes accessibility one of the four HyFlex values. Primer C07 covers inclusion in depth.

    • Beatty, B. J. (2019). Hybrid-flexible course design: Implementing student-directed hybrid classes. EdTech Books. doi
    • Steinfeld, E., & Maisel, J. L. (2012). Universal design: Creating inclusive environments. John Wiley & Sons.
    Accommodations and modifications

    An accommodation changes how a student learns or is assessed and keeps the goal. A modification changes what the student is taught or expected to learn (Understood, 2025). The difference matters for how results are reported.

    • Understood. (2025, July 28). The difference between accommodations and modifications. understood.org
    • Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board. (n.d.). Access arrangements. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from seab.gov.sg
    Achievement Levels

    Singapore's primary examination scoring from the 2021 cohort: each subject is reported in one of eight Achievement Levels, and the four subjects sum to a score between 4 and 32 (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2016).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2016, July 13). Changes to PSLE scoring and Secondary One posting [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). How will the current PSLE scoring system benefit your child? Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, November 25). Release of 2025 PSLE results [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
    Achievement, attainment and opportunity gaps

    An achievement gap is a difference in measured performance; an attainment gap a difference in qualifications reached; an opportunity gap a difference in the resources and chances that produced them. The last is the cause of the first two, and the hardest to measure.

    • Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. National Center for Educational Statistics. eric.ed.gov
    • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. doi
    • OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
    Acoustics

    How sound behaves in a space: background noise, reverberation and how clearly speech carries. Poor classroom acoustics are linked to lower attainment (Shield & Dockrell, 2008), and audio is the most common failure point in hybrid rooms (Raes et al., 2020).

    • Shield, B. M., & Dockrell, J. E. (2008). The effects of environmental and classroom noise on the academic attainments of primary school children. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 123(1), 133–144. doi
    • Shield, B., Greenland, E., & Dockrell, J. (2010). Noise in open plan classrooms in primary schools: A review. Noise and Health, 12(49), 225–234. doi
    • Raes, A., Detienne, L., Windey, I., & Depaepe, F. (2020). A systematic literature review on synchronous hybrid learning: Gaps identified. Learning Environments Research, 23(3), 269–290. doi
    Action research

    Research carried out by people on their own practice, in cycles of planning, acting, observing and revising. The lineage runs from Lewin (1946); the aim is a better practice as much as a publishable finding.

    • Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 34–46. doi
    • Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. Teachers College Press.
    Active learning classrooms

    Rooms built for group work and interaction, often with round tables, shared screens and whiteboards on every wall. SCALE-UP and TEAL are well-known examples (Beichner, 2006; Dori & Belcher, 2005).

    • Beichner, R. (2006). North Carolina State University: SCALE-UP. In D. G. Oblinger (Ed.), Learning spaces (chap. 29). EDUCAUSE. educause.edu
    • Dori, Y. J., & Belcher, J. (2005). How does technology-enabled active learning affect undergraduate students’ understanding of electromagnetism concepts? Journal of the Learning Sciences, 14(2), 243–279. doi
    • Brooks, D. C. (2011). Space matters: The impact of formal learning environments on student learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42(5), 719–726. doi
    Adaptation

    Changing a programme to fit the setting it lands in. Often treated as a failure of fidelity; in the few studies that measured it, adaptation was associated with better outcomes, not worse (Durlak & DuPre, 2008). Primer C11 covers it for curriculum.

    • Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. doi
    • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
    Adaptive expertise

    Expertise that stays flexible and can deal with unfamiliar problems. Hatano and Inagaki (1986) contrast it with routine expertise, which is fast and accurate in stable conditions but struggles when they change.

    • Hatano, G., & Inagaki, K. (1986). Two courses of expertise. In H. Stevenson, H. Azuma, & K. Hakuta (Eds.), Child development and education in Japan (pp. 262–272). Freeman.
    ADHD

    Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a neurodevelopmental condition involving persistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity or impulsivity that affect daily functioning (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.-a). Diagnosis is a clinical matter.

    • National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.-a). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from nimh.nih.gov
    Adolescence

    The period between childhood and adulthood, starting with puberty. It is usually defined as ages 10 to 19, and some researchers propose 10 to 24 (Sawyer et al., 2018).

    • Sawyer, S. M., Azzopardi, P. S., Wickremarathne, D., & Patton, G. C. (2018). The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 2(3), 223–228. doi
    • Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28(1), 78–106. doi
    • Blakemore, S.-J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 296–312. doi
    Adult learning

    Organised learning by people past the age of compulsory schooling, whether for work, for a qualification or for its own sake. The OECD measure used here counts formal and non-formal education and training in a twelve-month period (OECD, 2019).

    • OECD. (2019). Getting skills right: Future-ready adult learning systems. OECD Publishing. doi
    • Knowles, M. S., et al. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult education. Jossey-Bass.
    Age-appropriate design

    Designing a product, service or policy around the needs, abilities and rights of children at a given age, with protective settings as the default (Information Commissioner's Office, 2020).

    • Information Commissioner's Office. (2020). Age appropriate design: A code of practice for online services. ico.org.uk
    • UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2021). General comment No. 25 (2021) on children's rights in relation to the digital environment (CRC/C/GC/25). ohchr.org
    • United Nations General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. ohchr.org
    Age-graded classroom

    A class of pupils grouped by age, taught by one teacher in one room for a year at a time. Boston's Quincy Grammar School (1848) is often cited as an early American example (National Park Service, n.d.).

    • Tyack, D., & Tobin, W. (1994). The "grammar" of schooling: Why has it been so hard to change? American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 453–479. doi
    • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
    • National Park Service. (n.d.). Quincy Grammar School. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from home.nps.gov
    Agency and avatars

    Agency is the sense of controlling one's own actions in an environment; CAMIL names it, with presence, as a core affordance of immersive VR (Makransky & Petersen, 2021). An avatar is the body that represents a user in a virtual world.

    • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
    • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5, 81. doi
    Agenda setting

    The stage at which a condition becomes a problem that government will consider acting on. Kingdon (1995) treats it as the coupling of a named problem, an available solution and a favourable politics.

    • Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). HarperCollins.
    • Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(1), 1–25. doi
    AI and assessment design

    Redesigning what is assessed, and where, so that the inference from work to student still holds when a capable tool is available. Lodge et al. (2023) argue for authentic engagement with AI plus security at a few meaningful points.

    • Lodge, J. M., Howard, S., Bearman, M., Dawson, P., & Associates. (2023). Assessment reform for the age of artificial intelligence. Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency. teqsa.gov.au
    • Bridgeman, A., Weeks, R., & Liu, D. (2024, November 26). Aligning our assessments to the age of generative AI. Teaching@Sydney, University of Sydney. educational-innovation.sydney.edu.au
    AI and the purpose of schooling

    The question, reopened by generative models, of what schooling is for when answers are cheap to produce. It is a question about aims, treated in primer C01, rather than a question about any particular tool.

    • Bastani, H., Bastani, O., Sungu, A., Ge, H., Kabakcı, Ö., & Mariman, R. (2025). Generative AI without guardrails can harm learning: Evidence from high school mathematics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122(26), e2422633122. doi
    • International Commission on the Futures of Education. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO. doi
    Air quality and CO₂

    How fresh and clean indoor air is, usually tracked in classrooms by the concentration of carbon dioxide as a marker of ventilation. Lower concentrations are associated with faster schoolwork and better attendance (Wargocki et al., 2020).

    • Wargocki, P., Porras-Salazar, J. A., Contreras-Espinoza, S., & Bahnfleth, W. (2020). The relationships between classroom air quality and children’s performance in school. Building and Environment, 173, Article 106749. doi
    • Wargocki, P., & Wyon, D. P. (2007). The effects of moderately raised classroom temperatures and classroom ventilation rate on the performance of schoolwork by children (RP-1257). HVAC&R Research, 13(2), 193–220. doi
    • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
    Alignment

    Agreement between what is wanted, what is taught and what is assessed. Biggs (1996) calls the designed version constructive alignment; Webb (1997) sets out criteria for judging it.

    • Webb, N. L. (1997). Criteria for alignment of expectations and assessments in mathematics and science education (Research Monograph No. 6). National Institute for Science Education. files.eric.ed.gov
    • Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. doi
    • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
    Allied Educators (SG)

    Singapore school staff who work alongside teachers. Allied Educators (Learning and Behavioural Support) are learning support specialists who help students with mild special educational needs (National Youth Council, n.d.).

    • National Youth Council. (n.d.). Allied Educator (Learning and Behavioural Support). Discover NYC. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from discover.nyc.gov.sg
    Ambiguity–conflict model

    Matland's model in which how clear a policy is, and how much people disagree about it, predict what decides a rollout: resources, power, local context or the strength of local coalitions (Matland, 1995).

    • Matland, R. E. (1995). Synthesizing the implementation literature: The ambiguity-conflict model of policy implementation. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 5(2), 145–174. doi
    Andragogy

    Knowles’s account of teaching adults, built on assumptions about a maturing self-concept, accumulated experience, readiness tied to social roles, immediate application and internal motivation (Knowles et al., 1984, as reported in Smith, 2002). It is a design stance, not a theory of learning.

    • Knowles, M. S., et al. (1984). Andragogy in action: Applying modern principles of adult education. Jossey-Bass.
    • Hartree, A. (1984). Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy: A critique. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 3(3), 203–210. doi
    • Smith, M. K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction and andragogy. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. infed.org
    Anticipatory governance

    Guston’s (2014) term for “a broad-based capacity extended through society” to manage emerging technologies while management is still possible, built from foresight, public engagement and integration into decisions.

    • Guston, D. H. (2014). Understanding “anticipatory governance”. Social Studies of Science, 44(2), 218–242. doi
    Applied Learning Programme (SG)

    A non-examinable Singapore programme in which schools connect academic subjects to authentic settings, in areas such as STEM, languages, humanities, business and interdisciplinary thinking skills (Ministry of Education, Singapore, n.d.-c).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). Applied Learning Programme (ALP). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    Apprenticeship of observation

    Lortie's (1975) term for the thousands of hours future teachers spend watching teachers as students. What it teaches is intuitive and imitative, which can make early teaching echo how one was taught (Mewborn & Tyminski, 2006).

    • Lortie, D. C. (1975). Schoolteacher: A sociological study. University of Chicago Press.
    • Mewborn, D. S., & Tyminski, A. M. (2006). Lortie’s apprenticeship of observation revisited. For the Learning of Mathematics, 26(3), 30–33. flm-journal.org
    Apprenticeships

    Employment with structured training, in which a learner is paid, works, and is assessed against an occupational standard. Quality and duration vary enormously between countries and sectors, and the label is applied to programmes that share little else.

    • Wolf, A. (2011). Review of vocational education: The Wolf report (DFE-00031-2011). Department for Education. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
    • Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. doi
    Approach, strategy and technique

    Three levels of teaching decision. An approach is a broad stance on how learning should be organised, such as inquiry. A strategy is a planned sequence within it, such as gradual release. A technique is a single move, such as cold calling or a think-aloud. Usage varies between writers.

    • Anthony, E. M. (1963). Approach, method, and technique. English Language Teaching, 17(2), 63–67. doi
    Approved Textbook List (SG)

    Singapore's list of ministry-approved materials, drawn up to help principals and subject heads select suitable texts and updated in mid-August each year; commercial materials enter schools through it (Ministry of Education, n.d.-b).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-b). Approved textbook list. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore's school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
    Assessment as learning

    Assessment used by the learner to monitor and steer their own learning, rather than by the teacher to steer teaching. It is the self-regulation end of assessment for learning (Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006).

    • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. doi
    • Panadero, E., Jonsson, A., & Botella, J. (2017). Effects of self-assessment on self-regulated learning and self-efficacy: Four meta-analyses. Educational Research Review, 22, 74–98. doi
    Assessment for learning

    The practice of using assessment evidence to decide what to do next in teaching and learning. Often used interchangeably with formative assessment, though Bennett (2011) notes the two terms are not always used for the same thing.

    • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7–74. doi
    • Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14. doi
    • Bennett, R. E. (2011). Formative assessment: A critical review. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 18(1), 5–25. doi
    Assessment literacy

    Knowing what assessments can and cannot tell you, and how to build and read them. The term was popularised by Stiggins (1991), who argued that decision-makers need it as much as teachers do.

    • Stiggins, R. J. (1991). Assessment literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(7), 534–539. jstor.org
    Assistive technology

    Any device or software used to increase, maintain or improve what a learner can do, from text-to-speech and screen readers to communication aids. It usually works as an accommodation.

    • Understood. (2025, July 28). The difference between accommodations and modifications. understood.org
    Attained curriculum

    What students come away able to do, usually evidenced by their work and by assessment. It is the level most systems measure and the one furthest from the document.

    • Bakan Kalaycioglu, D., Reynolds, K. A., Fishbein, B., Gonzalez, E., & von Davier, M. (2026). Intended, implemented, and attained mathematics and science curricula at the eighth grade: Findings from TIMSS 2023. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. doi
    Attention

    The capacity to select some information and ignore the rest. It is limited, develops through childhood and is easily captured by design. The Designing for Learning primer covers it in depth.

    • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. doi
    • Posner, M. I., & Petersen, S. E. (1990). The attention system of the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 13, 25–42. doi
    Attribution against contribution

    Attribution claims a share of the observed change for the programme and needs a counterfactual. Contribution claims the programme was one cause among several, none sufficient alone, and is established by testing the theory and the rival explanations (Mayne, 2012).

    • Mayne, J. (2012). Contribution analysis: Coming of age? Evaluation, 18(3), 270–280. doi
    • Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. (2021, March 22). Theory-based approaches to evaluation: Concepts and practices. Government of Canada. canada.ca
    Audit test

    A second measure of the same learning, taken by the same students with no stakes attached; the standard way to detect score inflation, and rarely done.

    • Koretz, D., & Barron, S. I. (1998). The validity of gains in scores on the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS) (MR-1014-EDU). RAND. rand.org
    • Koretz, D. (2008). Measuring up: What educational testing really tells us. Harvard University Press. jstor.org
    • Dee, T. S., & Jacob, B. (2011). The impact of No Child Left Behind on student achievement. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 30(3), 418–446. doi
    Augmented reality (AR)

    A real environment "augmented by means of virtual (computer graphic) objects", such as labels or models laid over a camera view (Milgram & Kishino, 1994).

    • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
    • Azuma, R. T. (1997). A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(4), 355–385. doi
    Authentic assessment

    Assessment that "directly examines student performance on worthy intellectual tasks" rather than using indirect proxy items (Wiggins, 1990).

    • Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment (ERIC Digest ED328611). ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement and Evaluation. files.eric.ed.gov
    Autism

    A developmental condition that affects how people interact with others, communicate, learn and behave (National Institute of Mental Health, n.d.-b). Many autistic people see it as part of their identity rather than only a disorder (Kapp et al., 2013).

    • National Institute of Mental Health. (n.d.-b). Autism spectrum disorder. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from nimh.nih.gov
    • Kapp, S. K., Gillespie-Lynch, K., Sherman, L. E., & Hutman, T. (2013). Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 59–71. doi
    • Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., Buckley, C., Povey, C., & Pellicano, E. (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community. Autism, 20(4), 442–462. doi
    Automation and work

    The displacement and reshaping of tasks by machines. For education its importance is indirect: it changes what qualifications are worth, how often adults must retrain, and which skills schools are asked to guarantee.

    • Autor, D. H., Levy, F., & Murnane, R. J. (2003). The skill content of recent technological change: An empirical exploration. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(4), 1279–1333. doi
    • Frey, C. B., & Osborne, M. A. (2017). The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation? Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 114, 254–280. doi
    Autonomy

    The room teachers have to decide what and how to teach. It is a condition for professional judgement, and varies widely between systems and schools.

    • Biesta, G., Priestley, M., & Robinson, S. (2015). The role of beliefs in teacher agency. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 624–640. doi
    • Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
    Autonomy, competence and relatedness

    The three basic psychological needs in self-determination theory: feeling that your actions are your own, feeling capable, and feeling connected to others (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

    • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi
    • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268. doi
    B
    Backcasting

    Starting from a chosen future, desired or feared, and working backwards to the steps that would connect it to the present. It is used to overcome present bias in planning (Government Office for Science, 2024).

    • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
    • Robinson, J. B. (1990). Futures under glass: A recipe for people who hate to predict. Futures, 22(8), 820–842. doi
    Backward design

    Planning in three stages: identify desired results, determine acceptable evidence, then plan learning experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe, 2005; McTighe & Wiggins, 2012).

    • Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). ASCD.
    • McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2012). Understanding by Design framework [White paper]. ASCD. files.ascd.org
    • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
    Backward mapping

    A planning method that specifies the behaviour wanted at the last point of contact, then asks what each level above it would have to do to make that behaviour possible (Elmore, 1979).

    • Elmore, R. F. (1979). Backward mapping: Implementation research and policy decisions. Political Science Quarterly, 94(4), 601–616. doi
    Bar model

    A drawing in which quantities are shown as rectangular bars of proportional length, so that the relationship in a word problem becomes visible before it is written as an equation (Kaur, 2019).

    • Kaur, B. (2019). The why, what and how of the ‘Model’ method: A tool for representing and visualising relationships when solving whole number arithmetic word problems. ZDM, 51(1), 151–168. doi
    • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
    Belonging

    The sense of being accepted, valued and included by others in a setting such as a class or school (Baumeister & Leary, 1995).

    • Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. doi
    • Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011). A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students. Science, 331(6023), 1447–1451. doi
    • Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., Logel, C., Yeager, D. S., Goyer, J. P., Brady, S. T., et al. (2023). Where and with whom does a brief social-belonging intervention promote progress in college? Science, 380(6644), 499–505. doi
    Best interests of the child

    The principle in Article 3 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child that in all actions concerning children, the child's best interests shall be a primary consideration (United Nations General Assembly, 1989).

    • United Nations General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. ohchr.org
    • Information Commissioner's Office. (2020). Age appropriate design: A code of practice for online services. ico.org.uk
    • UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2021). General comment No. 25 (2021) on children's rights in relation to the digital environment (CRC/C/GC/25). ohchr.org
    Between-cycle updates

    Content added to a curriculum without waiting for its scheduled review, usually because the field moves faster than the cycle. Singapore added AI literacy to digital literacy work this way (Ministry of Education, 2025).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, September 23). Regular curriculum reviews and industry consultation to align students' skills with future economy needs [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
    • OECD. (2020a). What students learn matters: Towards a 21st century curriculum. OECD Publishing. doi
    Big ideas

    The concepts that organise a subject and that a unit is built to serve, rather than the topics a textbook happens to contain. In Understanding by Design they sit at the centre of stage one.

    • Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). ASCD.
    • McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2012). Understanding by Design framework [White paper]. ASCD. files.ascd.org
    • Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
    Bildung

    A German tradition of education as self-formation: becoming a cultivated, thoughtful person through engagement with the sciences, arts and philosophy (Curren, 2025). It is broader than training and older than most modern aims statements.

    C04 Self-formation. In the German Didaktik tradition, teaching is a meaningful encounter between content and students that contributes to it (Deng, 2018).

    • Curren, R. (2025). Philosophy of education. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. plato.stanford.edu
    • Deng, Z. (2018). Rethinking teaching and teachers: Bringing content back into conversation. London Review of Education, 16(3), 371–383. doi
    • Horlacher, R. (2016). The educated subject and the German concept of Bildung: A comparative cultural history. Routledge. doi
    Black swan

    A rare, high-impact event that was not anticipated and is rationalised afterwards. Singapore’s Centre for Strategic Futures names identifying them as one reason it exists (Centre for Strategic Futures, 2026a).

    • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026a). Who we are. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
    • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026b). Our approach. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
    • Taleb, N. N. (2007). The black swan: The impact of the highly improbable. Random House.
    Blended Learning (SG)

    Teaching that combines face-to-face and online learning in one course, with the online part doing real instructional work rather than only storing materials. Primer C08 covers learning spaces.

    C08 Regularly scheduled home-based learning days in Singapore's secondary schools and junior colleges, designed to build self-directed learning and supported by the Student Learning Space (Ministry of Education, 2020).

    • Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105. doi
    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020, December 29). Blended learning to enhance schooling experience and further develop students into self-directed learners [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS). Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    Bloom’s revised taxonomy

    A taxonomy that crosses a knowledge dimension, factual, conceptual, procedural and metacognitive, with a process dimension running remember, understand, apply, analyse, evaluate and create (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).

    • Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
    • Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. doi
    • Heer, R. (2012). A model of learning objectives based on A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing. Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, Iowa State University. bu.edu
    Bodily engagement

    How much bodily activity a learning task involves, from watching to whole-body movement. One of two dimensions in Skulmowski and Rey's (2018) taxonomy.

    • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
    Body schema

    The largely unconscious sense of the body's layout, size and posture that the brain uses to guide movement. It is part of body awareness, not of spatial ability.

    • Gallagher, S. (2005). How the body shapes the mind. Oxford University Press. doi
    Bring your own device

    A policy in which students use their own laptops, tablets or phones in lessons, rather than devices owned by the school. It widens access but adds variety in models, settings and charge that a teacher has to manage.

      Built learning environment

      The physical setting of learning: buildings, rooms, furniture, outdoor areas and the conditions inside them. Blackmore et al. (2011) review how it connects to student outcomes.

      • Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. education.vic.gov.au
      • Woolner, P., Hall, E., Higgins, S., McCaughey, C., & Wall, K. (2007). A sound foundation? What we know about the impact of environments on learning and the implications for Building Schools for the Future. Oxford Review of Education, 33(1), 47–70. doi
      • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
      Burnout

      A prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stress at work, marked by exhaustion, cynicism and a sense of ineffectiveness (Maslach et al., 2001).

      • Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W. B., & Leiter, M. P. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397–422. doi
      • Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2(2), 99–113. doi
      C
      Campbell's law

      When test scores become the goal of the teaching process, they both lose their value as indicators of educational status and distort the educational process in undesirable ways (Campbell, 1979).

      C14 The more any quantitative social indicator is used for social decision-making, the more subject it will be to corruption pressures and the more apt it will be to distort the processes it monitors (Campbell, 1979).

      C17 The more a quantitative social indicator is used for social decision-making, the more subject it is to corruption pressures and the more apt to distort the social processes it is intended to monitor (Campbell, 1979).

      • Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. doi
      • Strathern, M. (1997). ‘Improving ratings’: Audit in the British University system. European Review, 5(3), 305–321. doi
      Capability

      What a person is actually able to do or be if they choose, such as being educated or taking part in public life. Realised capabilities are called functionings (Robeyns & Byskov, 2025).

      • Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford University Press.
      • Nussbaum, M. C. (2011). Creating capabilities: The human development approach. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
      • Robeyns, I., & Byskov, M. F. (2025). The capability approach. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. plato.stanford.edu
      Capability against competency

      In heutagogy, competency is demonstrated knowledge and skill; capability is the confidence and ability “to take appropriate and effective action to formulate and solve problems in both familiar and unfamiliar and changing settings”. Capability extends competency and does not replace it (Blaschke, 2012).

      • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
      • Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. ultiBASE. [Not retrievable at the time of writing; used here as reported by Blaschke (2012) and Moore (2020).]
      • Agonács, N., & Matos, J. F. (2019). Heutagogy and self-determined learning: A review of the published literature on the application and implementation of the theory. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 34(3), 223–240. doi
      Capacity-building

      A policy instrument defined as "the transfer of money for the purpose of investment in material, intellectual, or human resources" (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987b). It assumes the skill or kit is missing and pays for it, accepting a long wait for returns.

      • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
      • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987a). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152. doi
      • Schneider, A., & Ingram, H. (1990). Behavioral assumptions of policy tools. The Journal of Politics, 52(2), 510–529. doi
      Career tracks

      Structured routes for professional progression. Singapore's Ministry of Education offers teaching, school leadership and senior specialist tracks, with movement between them (Ministry of Education, n.d.).

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). Professional development and career tracks. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
      Carroll's model of school learning

      A model in which the degree of learning depends on time actually spent relative to time needed, shaped by aptitude, ability to understand instruction, perseverance, opportunity to learn and quality of instruction (Carroll, 1963).

      • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
      • Carroll, J. B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25-year retrospective and prospective view. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 26–31. doi
      Case study

      An in-depth study of one setting, programme or person, usually with several kinds of data. Flyvbjerg (2006) argues that the common objection, that one cannot generalise from a single case, misunderstands what exemplars do for a field.

      • Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219–245. doi
      • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
      Causal layered analysis

      A method that reads an issue at four levels: the litany, the systemic causes, the worldview and the underlying myth or metaphor (Inayatullah, 1998).

      • Inayatullah, S. (1998). Causal layered analysis: Poststructuralism as method. Futures, 30(8), 815–829. doi
      • Inayatullah, S. (2017). Causal layered analysis: A four-level approach to alternative futures. In Prospective and strategic foresight toolbox. Futuribles International. metafuture.org
      Centralisation and decentralisation

      Whether decisions are taken at the top of a system or lower down. Not one variable: the OECD counts 23 decisions in four domains, and a system can be centralised in one domain and devolved in another (OECD, 2018). Hooge and colleagues (2012) distinguish three routes down: deconcentration, market mechanisms and participative democracy.

      • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
      • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
      • Hanushek, E. A., Link, S., & Woessmann, L. (2013). Does school autonomy make sense everywhere? Panel estimates from PISA. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 212–232. doi
      Character and citizenship education (SG)

      Singapore's programme for values, character, social-emotional well-being and citizenship. The 2021 syllabus aims for good character, resilience and well-being, future readiness and active citizenship (Ministry of Education, 2021).

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2021). Character & citizenship education (CCE) syllabus: Secondary. moe.gov.sg
      • Tan, J. (2013). Aims of schooling for the twenty-first century: The Desired Outcomes of Education. In Z. Deng, S. Gopinathan, & C. K.-E. Lee (Eds.), Globalization and the Singapore curriculum (pp. 33–47). Springer. doi
      Charismatic technology

      A technology that attracts support through the story it tells about learners and the future, more than through evidence of results (Ames, 2019).

      • Ames, M. G. (2019). The charisma machine: The life, death, and legacy of One Laptop per Child. MIT Press. mitpress.mit.edu
      • Warschauer, M., & Ames, M. (2010). Can One Laptop per Child save the world's poor? Journal of International Affairs, 64(1), 33–51. jstor.org
      Checking for understanding

      Short, frequent checks during a lesson, such as questions, mini whiteboards or quick quizzes, to see whether the class has understood before moving on. Primer C13 covers formative assessment in depth.

      • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7–74. doi
      • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39.
      Child and adolescent development

      The physical, cognitive, social and emotional changes from birth to adulthood. They happen at different rates in different areas and are shaped by the settings a child lives in.

      • Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
      • Siegler, R. S. (2005). Children's learning. American Psychologist, 60(8), 769–778. doi
      • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
      CIPP model

      Stufflebeam's model of four kinds of evaluation, each answering one question: context, "What needs to be done?"; input, "How should it be done?"; process, "Is it being done?"; product, "Did it succeed?" (Stufflebeam, 2007).

      • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2007). CIPP evaluation model checklist (2nd ed.). The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
      • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2003). The CIPP model for evaluation. In T. Kellaghan & D. L. Stufflebeam (Eds.), International handbook of educational evaluation (pp. 31–62). Springer. doi
      Class size

      The number of students taught together in one class. Singapore reports an average form class size of 34 in primary and 33 in secondary schools, while subject classes can be smaller (Ministry of Education, n.d.-b).

      • Krueger, A. B. (1999). Experimental estimates of education production functions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(2), 497–532. doi
      • Filges, T., Sonne-Schmidt, C. S., & Nielsen, B. C. V. (2018). Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1). doi
      • Schanzenbach, D. W. (2014). Does class size matter? National Education Policy Center. nepc.colorado.edu
      Classical test theory

      A model that treats an observed score as the sum of a true score and an independent random error component, giving one error figure for the whole test (AERA et al., 2014).

      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      • Lord, F. M., & Novick, M. R. (1968). Statistical theories of mental test scores. Addison-Wesley. doi
      Classroom management

      The actions and strategies teachers use to create and keep order for learning. Doyle (1986) framed it as solving "the problem of order in classrooms" (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

      • Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). Macmillan.
      • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
      • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
      Classroom orchestration

      How a teacher manages, in real time, several layers of activity under many constraints (Dillenbourg, 2013). In design terms, it asks whether a tool is usable by a whole class run by one teacher.

      • Dillenbourg, P. (2013). Design for classroom orchestration. Computers & Education, 69, 485–492. doi
      • Prieto, L. P. (2015). Classroom technology design guidelines: A focused survey. In Proceedings of the Orchestrated Collaborative Classroom Workshop 2015 (CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 1411). ceur-ws.org
      Climate-resilient schools

      Schools designed or adapted to stay usable and comfortable through heat, heavy rain and other effects of a changing climate, for example with shading, fans, cool paint and greenery (Ministry of Education, 2024).

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, August 19). Enhancing school infrastructure to support the future of learning [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2021, March 4). Learn for life: Equipping ourselves for a changing world. Nurturing stewards of the environment [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
      Co-agency

      The OECD’s term for agency exercised with others: students are “surrounded by their peers, teachers, families and communities, all of whom interact with and guide the student towards well-being” (OECD, 2019). Primer C01 covers it.

      • OECD. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030 [Concept note, OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030]. oecd.org
      Co-curricular activities

      Organised activities outside the academic timetable, such as sport, uniformed groups, performing arts, clubs and societies. In Singapore a CCA is compulsory for all secondary school students and strongly encouraged elsewhere (Ministry of Education, n.d.-c). They occupy staff time as well as student time.

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). Overview of co-curricular activities (CCAs). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
      Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL)

      A model that names presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of immersive VR, acting through six factors: interest, motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load and self-regulation (Makransky & Petersen, 2021).

      • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
      Cognitive load theory

      See Gerald Ajam's guide Designing for Learning. In brief: working memory is limited, and designs that add load unrelated to the goal leave less capacity for learning. Embodied and immersive designs can add such load (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019).

      • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
      • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
      Cognitive offloading

      "The use of physical action to alter the information processing requirements of a task so as to reduce cognitive demand", such as writing a note or tilting one's head (Risko & Gilbert, 2016).

      • Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi
      • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
      Coherence

      Fullan and Quinn’s term for the "[s]hared depth of understanding about the purpose and nature of the work" across a school or system. It is a state in people’s heads, not an alignment of documents (Fullan & Quinn, 2016, quoted in DeWitt, 2016).

      • Fullan, M., & Quinn, J. (2016). Coherence: The right drivers in action for schools, districts, and systems. Corwin.
      • Newmann, F. M., Smith, B., Allensworth, E., & Bryk, A. S. (2001). Instructional program coherence: What it is and why it should guide school improvement policy. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(4), 297–321. doi
      • DeWitt, P. (2016, January 24). It’s important to lead with coherence [Opinion]. Education Week. edweek.org
      Cold calling

      Asking a question and then choosing who answers, instead of taking volunteers. It keeps more students thinking, and needs a safe climate so that being asked is not a threat.

      • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
      • Lemov, D. (2010). Teach like a champion: 49 techniques that put students on the path to college. Jossey-Bass.
      Coleman Report

      The survey Congress ordered under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which found the impact of resources on achievement modest compared with family background: a finding about school inputs, not teaching (Coleman et al., 1966).

      • Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. National Center for Educational Statistics. eric.ed.gov
      • Gamoran, A., & Long, D. A. (2006). Equality of educational opportunity: A 40-year retrospective (WCER Working Paper No. 2006-9). Wisconsin Center for Education Research. wcer.wisc.edu
      Collaborative and cooperative learning

      Learning in which students work together on a shared task. Cooperative learning usually means structured group work with defined roles and shared goals; collaborative learning is the broader term. Both depend on task design and on each student having something to contribute.

      • Chi, M. T. H., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educational Psychologist, 49(4), 219–243. doi
      • Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Allyn & Bacon.
      Comment-only marking

      Returning work with written comments and no mark or grade, so that attention goes to what to do next. Butler (1988) found comments alone outperformed grades, and grades with comments, on interest and performance.

      • Butler, R. (1988). Enhancing and undermining intrinsic motivation: The effects of task-involving and ego-involving evaluation on interest and performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58(1), 1–14. doi
      • Elliott, V., Baird, J.-A., Hopfenbeck, T. N., Ingram, J., Thompson, I., Usher, N., Zantout, M., Richardson, J., & Coleman, R. (2016). A marked improvement? A review of the evidence on written marking. Education Endowment Foundation. educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
      Common school

      A free, public school intended for all children in a community. Horace Mann promoted it in Massachusetts from 1837 (Warder, 2014).

      • Warder, G. (2014). Horace Mann and the creation of the common school. Social Welfare History Project, VCU Libraries. socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu
      • Kaestle, C. F. (1983). Pillars of the republic: Common schools and American society, 1780–1860. Hill and Wang. doi
      Communicative language teaching

      An approach that treats communication as both the means and the goal of language learning. Its durable forms combine meaningful use with attention to linguistic form (Spada, 2007).

      • Spada, N. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 271–288). Springer. doi
      • Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. doi
      Community of inquiry

      A model, developed from text-based computer conferencing and widely used to design online courses, of three elements essential to an educational transaction: cognitive presence, social presence and teaching presence (Garrison et al., 1999).

      • Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 2(2–3), 87–105. doi
      Community partnerships

      Working arrangements between a school and organisations around it: employers, charities, faith and community groups, universities and government agencies. They bring resources and reach, and they also bring coordination costs that usually fall on one member of staff.

      • Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
      • Bryk, A. S. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(7), 23–30. doi
      Comparative judgement

      A method in which assessors repeatedly choose the better of two pieces of work, and a scale is built from the pattern of choices rather than from a rubric (Pollitt, 2012).

      • Pollitt, A. (2012). The method of Adaptive Comparative Judgement. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 19(3), 281–300. doi
      • Bramley, T. (2015). Investigating the reliability of Adaptive Comparative Judgment (Cambridge Assessment Research Report). Cambridge Assessment. cambridgeassessment.org.uk
      Compensatory education

      Additional provision intended to offset disadvantage, from preschool programmes to funded tutoring. Its record is mixed and depends on intensity, staffing and duration rather than on the label.

      • Nickow, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Quan, V. (2020). The impressive effects of tutoring on preK-12 learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the experimental evidence (NBER Working Paper No. 27476). National Bureau of Economic Research. nber.org
      • Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900–1902. doi
      • Rea, D., & Burton, T. (2020). New evidence on the Heckman curve. Journal of Economic Surveys, 34(2), 241–262. doi
      Competency-based curriculum

      A curriculum organised around what students should be able to do with knowledge, values and attitudes in context. The OECD (2019) insists competency and knowledge are "neither competing nor mutually exclusive concepts".

      • OECD. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030 [Concept note, OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030]. oecd.org
      • Rotherham, A. J., & Willingham, D. (2009). 21st century skills: The challenges ahead. Educational Leadership, 67(1), 16–21. ascd.org
      • Tan, J. P.-L., Koh, E., Chan, M., Costes-Onishi, P., & Hung, D. (2017). Advancing 21st century competencies in Singapore. Asia Society. asiasociety.org
      Computational thinking

      Solving problems and designing systems by drawing on concepts from computer science, such as abstraction, decomposition and algorithms. Wing (2006) argued it belongs in every child’s analytical ability.

      • Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35. doi
      • Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez Viveros, B. (2019). The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(5), 764–792. doi
      Computer-adaptive testing

      Testing in which each item, or each block of items, is chosen to suit the student's estimated ability, giving more precision for the same number of items. PISA 2018 used a multistage version for reading (Yamamoto et al., 2018).

      • Yamamoto, K., Shin, H. J., & Khorramdel, L. (2018). Multistage adaptive testing design in international large-scale assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(4), 16–27. doi
      • Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Danmarks Paedagogiske Institut. archive.org
      Conceptual and procedural knowledge

      Understanding why a method works, and being able to carry out its steps. The two develop iteratively, each supporting later gains in the other (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2001).

      • Rittle-Johnson, B., Siegler, R. S., & Alibali, M. W. (2001). Developing conceptual understanding and procedural skill in mathematics: An iterative process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 346–362. doi
      • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
      • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
      Conceptual metaphor

      The idea that abstract concepts are understood through bodily experience, as when more is described as up, in phrases such as "prices rose" (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

      • Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.
      Concerns-Based Adoption Model

      Hall, Hord and colleagues' model, which treats adoption as something that happens to people rather than to organisations. Its two instruments are the stages of concern and levels of use (SEDL, n.d.-a, n.d.-b).

      • Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2019). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes (5th ed.). Pearson.
      • SEDL. (n.d.-a). Stages of Concern, a dimension of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from sedl.org
      • SEDL. (n.d.-b). Levels of Use, a dimension of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from sedl.org
      Concrete–pictorial–abstract

      A teaching sequence from physical materials, through pictures and diagrams, to symbols. Singapore’s primary mathematics curriculum has used it since 1981 (Kaur, 2014).

      • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
      • Kaur, B. (2019). The why, what and how of the ‘Model’ method: A tool for representing and visualising relationships when solving whole number arithmetic word problems. ZDM, 51(1), 151–168. doi
      • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
      Configurable classrooms

      Rooms whose furniture, partitions or technology can be rearranged quickly for different group sizes and activities. Their value depends on whether they are in fact reconfigured.

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, August 19). Enhancing school infrastructure to support the future of learning [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
      • Dovey, K., & Fisher, K. (2014). Designing for adaptation: The school as socio-spatial assemblage. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), 43–63. doi
      Consequential validity

      The part of the validity argument concerned with the consequences of using scores in a particular way. Messick (1995) treats it as an aspect of construct validity; Kane (2013) holds that negative consequences can make a score use unacceptable.

      • Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. doi
      • Kane, M. T. (2013). Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores. Journal of Educational Measurement, 50(1), 1–73. doi
      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      Construct and construct validity

      A construct is "the concept or characteristic that a test is designed to measure" (AERA et al., 2014). Construct validity is the evidence that the scores behave as that concept would predict.

      • Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. doi
      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      Construct underrepresentation and construct-irrelevant variance

      Two threats to validity: an assessment too narrow to include important facets of the construct, and one too broad, picking up things that are not the point, such as reading load in science (Messick, 1995).

      • Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. doi
      • Crooks, T. J., Kane, M. T., & Cohen, A. S. (1996). Threats to the valid use of assessments. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 3(3), 265–286. doi
      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      Constructionism

      Papert's extension of constructivism: learning happens "especially felicitously in a context where the learner is consciously engaged in constructing a public entity, whether it's a sand castle on the beach or a theory of the universe" (Papert & Harel, 1991).

      • Papert, S., & Harel, I. (1991). Situating constructionism. In I. Harel & S. Papert (Eds.), Constructionism (pp. 1–11). Ablex.
      • Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. Basic Books. doi
      Constructive alignment

      Biggs’s (1996) design principle: objectives state performances of understanding, and the teaching methods and assessment are then aligned to elicit exactly those performances.

      • Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. doi
      • Biggs, J., & Tang, C. (2011). Teaching for quality learning at university (4th ed.). Open University Press.
      Constructivism

      A theory of learning holding that people build new knowledge on what they already know. It is not a teaching method. Mayer (2004) argues that constructivist learning is best supported by "cognitive activity rather than behavioral activity", which explicit teaching can provide.

      • Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. doi
      • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
      Content and performance standards

      Content standards say what students should know; performance standards say how well they must do it to count as proficient. Systems that write only the first leave the demand to the test.

      • Webb, N. L. (1997). Criteria for alignment of expectations and assessments in mathematics and science education (Research Monograph No. 6). National Institute for Science Education. files.eric.ed.gov
      • Schmidt, W. H., & Houang, R. T. (2012). Curricular coherence and the Common Core State Standards for mathematics. Educational Researcher, 41(8), 294–308. doi
      Content knowledge

      A teacher's knowledge of the subject itself, including why its claims hold and how the discipline is organised, not only its facts (Shulman, 1986).

      • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
      • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi
      • Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389–407. doi
      Content validity

      Evidence that the tasks represent the domain being claimed, usually from expert review against a blueprint. In current usage it is one source of evidence, not a separate kind of validity.

      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      • Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. doi
      Context–mechanism–outcome configurations

      The unit of a realist evaluation: a statement of how a programme's resources trigger a mechanism, among whom and in which conditions, to produce a given outcome. Summarised as "context + mechanism = outcome" (Pawson & Tilley, 2004).

      • Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Sage.
      • Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (2004). Realist evaluation. cnxus.org
      Core of educational practice

      Elmore’s term for "how teachers understand the nature of knowledge and the student’s role in learning, and how these ideas about knowledge and learning are manifested in teaching and classwork", together with the structural arrangements that hold them in place (Elmore, 1996, p. 2).

      • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
      • Cuban, L. (1984). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms, 1890–1980. Longman.
      Correlational and longitudinal studies

      Studies that measure how variables move together, and studies that follow the same people over time. Longitudinal data can establish that one thing preceded another, which is necessary for a causal claim but not sufficient.

      • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
      Cost-effectiveness

      The effect achieved per unit of resource. Harris (2009) argues that effect-size benchmarks that ignore cost cannot guide administration or policy. An economic evaluation that omits staff time is incomplete.

      • Harris, D. N. (2009). Toward policy-relevant benchmarks for interpreting effect sizes: Combining effects with costs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 31(1), 3–29. doi
      • Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253. doi
      Counterfactual

      What would have happened to the same people without the programme. It cannot be observed, so it is estimated from a comparison or control group. Primer C21 covers the designs used to do this.

      C21 What would have happened to the same students without the programme. That world cannot be observed, so every causal design is a way of building a stand-in for it.

      • Mayne, J. (2012). Contribution analysis: Coming of age? Evaluation, 18(3), 270–280. doi
      • Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
      • Holland, P. W. (1986). Statistics and causal inference. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 81(396), 945–960. doi
      Coverage against depth

      The standing trade-off between meeting many topics briefly and few topics thoroughly. It is a judgement about value, not a question this primer found settled by evidence.

      • OECD. (2020). Curriculum overload: A way forward. OECD Publishing. doi
      • Tan, J. P.-L., Koh, E., Chan, M., Costes-Onishi, P., & Hung, D. (2017). Advancing 21st century competencies in Singapore. Asia Society. asiasociety.org
      • Bakan Kalaycioglu, D., Reynolds, K. A., Fishbein, B., Gonzalez, E., & von Davier, M. (2026). Intended, implemented, and attained mathematics and science curricula at the eighth grade: Findings from TIMSS 2023. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. doi
      Coverage and exclusion

      The share of the target age group a sample actually represents. PISA requires overall estimated exclusions "under 5 percent of the PISA target population" (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.), but coverage of the wider age group varies: in 2022, 13 of 81 systems covered less than 75% of their 15-year-olds and two covered less than half.

      • National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). PISA 2022: Technical notes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from nces.ed.gov
      • National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). International comparisons: Reading, mathematics, and science literacy of 15-year-old students. In The condition of education 2024. U.S. Department of Education. nces.ed.gov
      Craft and tacit knowledge

      Practical know-how built through experience that teachers use without always being able to state it, such as sensing when a class is losing the thread. Much of an expert's knowledge is of this kind.

      • Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
      • Berliner, D. C. (2004). Describing the behavior and documenting the accomplishments of expert teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(3), 200–212. doi
      Credential inflation

      The process by which qualification requirements rise as qualifications spread, without the work itself changing, so each credential buys less than the one before (Collins, 1979).

      • Collins, R. (1979). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. Academic Press. (Legacy edition, Columbia University Press, 2019.) doi
      • Spence, M. (1973). Job market signaling. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), 355–374. doi
      Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced judgement

      Criterion-referenced judgement asks whether the work meets a standard; norm-referenced judgement asks how it compares with others. Schools run mostly on these two, and learners mostly experience the second.

      • Hughes, G. (2011). Towards a personal best: A case for introducing ipsative assessment in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 36(3), 353–367. doi
      Critical theory

      A family of traditions that treat research as part of exposing and changing unequal arrangements. Its characteristic question is whose interests a practice serves, and its designs are often participatory.

      • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
      • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
      Cross-sectional survey

      A study that samples a population, measures skill on a common scale and reports distributions. It supports strong statements about how much and for whom, and does not support causal statements about why.

      • Goldstein, H. (2004). International comparisons of student attainment: Some issues arising from the PISA study. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 319–330. doi
      • Feniger, Y., & Lefstein, A. (2014). How not to reason with PISA data: An ironic investigation. Journal of Education Policy, 29(6), 845–855. doi
      Cuban's cycle of classroom technology

      Four stages that recur with each classroom machine: exhilaration, scientific credibility, disappointment and teacher-bashing, driven by non-teachers' impulse to change classroom practice; a pattern drawn from history, not a law (Cuban, 1986).

      • Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
      Cultural capital

      Dispositions, goods and credentials that institutions recognise and reward. Bourdieu (1986) distinguishes an embodied state, "long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body", an objectified state as cultural goods, and an institutionalised state as qualifications.

      • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. marxists.org
      • Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture (R. Nice, Trans.). Sage.
      • Lareau, A. (2003). Unequal childhoods: Class, race, and family life. University of California Press.
      Cultural context

      The arrangements around a classroom practice that are not part of the practice: what families expect, what examinations reward, what a teaching career offers, what employers do with results. Used loosely it becomes a name for whatever is left unexplained; used well it names things a borrower can check.

      • Deng, Z., & Gopinathan, S. (2016). PISA and high-performing education systems: Explaining Singapore’s education success. Comparative Education, 52(4), 449–472. doi
      • Jerrim, J. (2015). Why do East Asian children perform so well in PISA? An investigation of Western-born children of East Asian descent. Oxford Review of Education, 41(3), 310–333. doi
      • Chan, C. K. K., & Rao, N. (Eds.). (2010). Revisiting the Chinese learner: Changing contexts, changing education. Springer. link.springer.com
      Culturally responsive pedagogy

      Teaching that uses students' cultural knowledge and experience as a route to learning. Ladson-Billings (1995) framed culturally relevant pedagogy around academic success, cultural competence and critical consciousness; Gay (2002) developed culturally responsive teaching.

      • Ladson-Billings, G. (1995). Toward a theory of culturally relevant pedagogy. American Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 465–491. doi
      • Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106–116. doi
      Curricular knowledge

      Knowledge of the programmes and materials available for teaching a topic, and of when each suits (Shulman, 1986). It includes what students learnt before and will learn next.

      • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
      • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi
      Curriculum change management

      The work of preparing schools for a change: sequencing, training, materials and communication. Covered in depth in primer C23 on education reform.

      • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
      • OECD. (2026). Ecosystems approach to curriculum change (OECD Education Policy Perspectives No. 135). OECD Publishing. doi
      • Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72(3), 387–431. doi
      Curriculum coherence

      The degree to which content across topics, years and subjects follows the structure of a discipline and adds up, rather than repeating or jumping. Schmidt and Houang (2012) found states with standards closer to a coherent set scored higher on national tests.

      • Schmidt, W. H., & Houang, R. T. (2012). Curricular coherence and the Common Core State Standards for mathematics. Educational Researcher, 41(8), 294–308. doi
      • Schmidt, W. H., Wang, H. C., & McKnight, C. C. (2005). Curriculum coherence: An examination of US mathematics and science content standards from an international perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 37(5), 525–559. doi
      Curriculum deliberation

      Arguing a curriculum decision to a defensible conclusion: identifying the facts, generating alternatives, weighing costs and consequences, and choosing (Walker, 1971; Kessels & Plomp, 1996).

      • Walker, D. F. (1971). A naturalistic model for curriculum development. The School Review, 80(1), 51–65. doi
      • Kessels, J. W. M., & Plomp, T. (1996). Course design. In T. Plomp & D. P. Ely (Eds.), International encyclopedia of educational technology (2nd ed., pp. 143–148). Pergamon. josephkessels.com
      Curriculum design

      Deciding the aims, content, sequence, teaching approach and assessment of a course or subject. One stage of curriculum development, not a synonym for it.

      • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
      • Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt, Brace & World.
      • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
      Curriculum development

      The whole process by which a curriculum is scanned for, designed, trialled, rolled out, monitored and revised, including the version teachers make in classrooms.

      • Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt, Brace & World.
      • Skilbeck, M. (1984). School-based curriculum development. Harper & Row. openlibrary.org
      • Priestley, M., Philippou, S., Alvunger, D., & Soini, T. (2021). Curriculum making: A conceptual framing. In M. Priestley, D. Alvunger, S. Philippou, & T. Soini (Eds.), Curriculum making in Europe: Policy and practice within and across diverse contexts (pp. 1–27). Emerald. doi
      Curriculum development and review

      How syllabuses are designed, consulted on, reviewed and renewed, and how they are enacted in schools. Primer C11 covers development, review cycles and enactment in full.

      • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, September 23). Regular curriculum reviews and industry consultation to align students’ skills with future economy needs [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
      • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
      • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
      Curriculum evaluation

      Judging the worth of a curriculum: whether it was taught, what it produced and what it displaced. Programme evaluation methods are covered in primer C22.

      • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
      • O'Donnell, C. L. (2008). Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring fidelity of implementation and its relationship to outcomes in K–12 curriculum intervention research. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 33–84. doi
      • OECD. (2026). Ecosystems approach to curriculum change (OECD Education Policy Perspectives No. 135). OECD Publishing. doi
      Curriculum ideologies and orientations

      Long-standing positions on what schooling is for, which drive most curriculum disputes. Schiro (2013) names four: Scholar Academic, Social Efficiency, Learner Centered and Social Reconstruction.

      • Schiro, M. S. (2013). Curriculum theory: Conflicting visions and enduring concerns (2nd ed.). SAGE. us.sagepub.com
      • Eisner, E. W., & Vallance, E. (Eds.). (1974). Conflicting conceptions of curriculum. McCutchan.
      Curriculum implementation

      Putting a curriculum into practice. What counts as success depends on the perspective taken: fidelity, mutual adaptation or enactment (Snyder et al., 1992).

      • Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397. doi
      • Snyder, J., Bolin, F., & Zumwalt, K. (1992). Curriculum implementation. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 402–435). Macmillan.
      • Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72(3), 387–431. doi
      Curriculum mapping

      Recording what is actually taught, when and to what demand, so that gaps, repetitions and mismatches with assessment become visible. It is the practical tool for seeing the enacted curriculum.

      C11 Setting out what is taught, where and when, across a programme or school. Covered in primer C10.

      • Webb, N. L. (1997). Criteria for alignment of expectations and assessments in mathematics and science education (Research Monograph No. 6). National Institute for Science Education. files.eric.ed.gov
      • Jacobs, H. H. (1997). Mapping the big picture: Integrating curriculum and assessment K–12. ASCD.
      • Porter, A. C. (2002). Measuring the content of instruction: Uses in research and practice. Educational Researcher, 31(7), 3–14. doi
      Curriculum materials and textbooks

      The resources that carry a curriculum into classrooms. Teachers interact with them rather than execute them (Remillard, 2005), and switching materials alone changed little in one large study (Blazar et al., 2020).

      • Remillard, J. T. (2005). Examining key concepts in research on teachers’ use of mathematics curricula. Review of Educational Research, 75(2), 211–246. doi
      • Blazar, D., Heller, B., Kane, T. J., Polikoff, M., Staiger, D. O., Carrell, S., Goldhaber, D., Harris, D. N., Hitch, R., Holden, K. L., & Kurlaender, M. (2020). Curriculum reform in the Common Core era: Evaluating elementary math textbooks across six U.S. states. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 39(4), 966–1019. doi
      Curriculum narrowing

      Teaching narrowed to tested subjects under high-stakes testing, reported in 69% of the 49 US studies Au synthesised; the effect depends heavily on how the tests themselves are built (Au, 2007).

      • Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative metasynthesis. Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258–267. doi
      Curriculum overload

      More content and more demands than the available time can hold. The OECD (2020) describes constant pressure to add new literacies and competencies, and asks how to avoid a "mile wide – inch deep" curriculum.

      • OECD. (2020). Curriculum overload: A way forward. OECD Publishing. doi
      • Schmidt, W. H., McKnight, C. C., & Raizen, S. A. (1997). A splintered vision: An investigation of U.S. science and mathematics education. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
      Cut scores

      The marks that separate one reported category, grade or decision from another. They are set by structured expert judgement, and the Standards require the rationale to be documented (AERA et al., 2014).

      • Cizek, G. J., & Bunch, M. B. (2007). Standard setting: A guide to establishing and evaluating performance standards on tests. Sage. sagepub.com
      • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
      Cybersickness

      Nausea, dizziness, headache and related symptoms during or after using virtual reality. Pooled scores across 55 studies were "relatively high" against recommended cut-offs (Saredakis et al., 2020).

      • Saredakis, D., Szpak, A., Birckhead, B., Keage, H. A. D., Rizzo, A., & Loetscher, T. (2020). Factors associated with virtual reality sickness in head-mounted displays: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 96. doi
      Cyclical models

      Models such as Wheeler's (1967) and Nicholls and Nicholls's (1972) that keep the steps of the objectives tradition but close the loop, so evaluation feeds the next round.

      • Wheeler, D. K. (1967). Curriculum process. University of London Press.
      • Nicholls, A., & Nicholls, S. H. (1972). Developing a curriculum: A practical guide. Allen & Unwin.
      D
      Dangling data

      Information that is simply recorded, passed to someone without the knowledge or power to change the outcome, or coded too tightly for action to follow, so the loop cannot close (Sadler, 1989).

      • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
      • Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14. doi
      Data governance

      Who may collect, hold, link and use data about students and schools, under what authority and for how long. It is treated in Assessment systems (C14), which covers what the data can and cannot support.

        De-implementation

        "The systematic process of identifying, then reducing, replacing, or discontinuing low-value programs and practices, including organizational routines and policies" (Farmer et al., 2026). The counterpart to implementation, and far less often planned.

        • Farmer, S., Hudson, K., & Ward, C. (2026). Less is more: Leveraging the power of de-implementation to drive excellence in education (RTI Press Research Brief No. RB-0044-2603). RTI Press. doi
        Decision density

        How many judgements teaching requires in a given time. Classic studies describe a very high rate of interaction and interactive decisions (Jackson, 1968; Clark & Peterson, 1986); the popular figure of 1,500 decisions a day has no traceable source.

        • Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers’ thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 255–296). Macmillan.
        • Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
        • Klein, A. (2021, December 6). 1,500 decisions a day (at least!): How teachers cope with a dizzying array of questions. Education Week. edweek.org
        Decision rights

        The right to decide, which is not one right: it is split across central, regional, local and school levels, and devolved decisions usually sit inside a framework set by a higher authority (OECD, 2018).

        • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
        Decoupling

        Meyer and Rowan's (1977) term for the gap organisations keep between the formal structures their environment expects and what they actually do day to day. Decoupling protects legitimacy and makes inspection ceremonial.

        • Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363. doi
        • Weick, K. E. (1976). Educational organizations as loosely coupled systems. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21(1), 1–19. doi
        Default pedagogies

        The familiar routines, or "the way we used to do things", that teachers who are not well prepared may revert to in a new space (Blackmore et al., 2011).

        • Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. education.vic.gov.au
        Depth

        Coburn’s (2003) first dimension of scale: change in the substance of practice, including beliefs and norms, rather than in its surface features.

        • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
        • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
        Depth of Knowledge

        Webb’s four levels of what a task requires: recall, skill or concept, strategic thinking and extended thinking. The level is a property of the task, not of the student’s ability (Webb, 1997, 2002).

        • Webb, N. L. (1997). Criteria for alignment of expectations and assessments in mathematics and science education (Research Monograph No. 6). National Institute for Science Education. files.eric.ed.gov
        • Webb, N. L. (2002). Depth-of-knowledge levels for four content areas [Unpublished paper]. Wisconsin Center for Education Research.
        • University of Florida. (n.d.). Difficulty and cognitive complexity [Assessment module 3e]. Office of Institutional Assessment. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from assessment.aa.ufl.edu
        Deschooling

        Illich’s (1971) argument that universal education cannot be delivered through schooling, and that “educational webs” should replace institutional funnels. Used today as shorthand for any serious case that schooling is not the only form education can take.

        • Illich, I. (1971). Deschooling society. Harper & Row.
        • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press.
        Design-based research

        Iterative building and testing of an educational design in a real setting, producing both a working design and a theory about why it works (Design-Based Research Collective, 2003). Anderson and Shattuck (2012) review its first decade.

        • Design-Based Research Collective. (2003). Design-based research: An emerging paradigm for educational inquiry. Educational Researcher, 32(1), 5–8. doi
        • Anderson, T., & Shattuck, J. (2012). Design-based research: A decade of progress in education research? Educational Researcher, 41(1), 16–25. doi
        Desired Outcomes of Education (SG)

        Attributes Singapore aspires for every student to possess by the end of formal education: confident persons, self-directed learners, active contributors and concerned citizens; first published in 1997 and revised in 2009 (Ministry of Education, n.d.-a).

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Desired outcomes of education. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
        • Tan, J. (2013). Aims of schooling for the twenty-first century: The Desired Outcomes of Education. In Z. Deng, S. Gopinathan, & C. K.-E. Lee (Eds.), Globalization and the Singapore curriculum (pp. 33–47). Springer. doi
        Developmental evaluation

        Evaluation of an innovation that is still changing, where the model is not settled and may never be. It supplies continuous feedback rather than a verdict (Patton, 1994; Gamble, 2008).

        • Patton, M. Q. (1994). Developmental evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 15(3), 311–319. doi
        • Gamble, J. A. A. (2008). A developmental evaluation primer. The J. W. McConnell Family Foundation. mcconnellfoundation.ca
        Device management

        Software and procedures that let a school set up, restrict, update and monitor students' devices. Singapore installs Device Management Applications on secondary students' Personal Learning Devices (Ministry of Education, 2020b).

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020a, November 2). Personal learning device [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020b, December 29). Blended learning to enhance schooling experience and further develop students into self-directed learners [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
        Diagnostic questions

        Questions written so that each wrong answer points to a particular misconception, which makes the response itself informative rather than merely incorrect.

        • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
        • Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Solution Tree Press.
        Dialogic feedback

        Feedback treated as an exchange rather than a delivery: the student responds, asks or revises, and the teacher replies. Elliott et al. (2016) found the idea promising but the evidence thin, and the workload high.

        • Elliott, V., Baird, J.-A., Hopfenbeck, T. N., Ingram, J., Thompson, I., Usher, N., Zantout, M., Richardson, J., & Coleman, R. (2016). A marked improvement? A review of the evidence on written marking. Education Endowment Foundation. educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
        • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. doi
        Dialogic teaching

        Teaching that "harnesses the power of talk to engage interest, stimulate thinking, advance understanding, expand ideas, and build and evaluate arguments" (Alexander, 2020). It is a repertoire guided by principles, not a single technique.

        • Alexander, R. (2020). A dialogic teaching companion. Routledge. doi
        • Jay, T., Willis, B., Thomas, P., Taylor, R., Moore, N., Burnett, C., Merchant, G., & Stevens, A. (2017). Dialogic teaching: Evaluation report and executive summary. Education Endowment Foundation. eric.ed.gov
        Didactic (teacher-led) instruction

        In everyday English, teaching by telling: the teacher presents and students listen. The word often carries a negative sense of lecturing or moralising. Alexander (2004) notes that this usage makes "didactics" sound like "chalk-and-talk", which is not what the European term means.

        • Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(1), 7–33. doi
        • Hopmann, S. (2007). Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal, 6(2), 109–124. doi
        Didactic triangle

        The Didaktik picture of teaching as three essential elements, content, teacher and student, and the relations between them (Deng, 2018). It reminds designers that method is only one of those relations.

        • Deng, Z. (2018). Rethinking teaching and teachers: Bringing content back into conversation. London Review of Education, 16(3), 371–383. doi
        • Hopmann, S. (2007). Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal, 6(2), 109–124. doi
        • Westbury, I., Hopmann, S., & Riquarts, K. (Eds.). (2000). Teaching as a reflective practice: The German Didaktik tradition. Lawrence Erlbaum.
        Didactics and Didaktik

        In continental Europe, the scholarly study of teaching and learning in relation to content: what to teach, why, and how to make it meaningful for learners. German Didaktik is committed to Bildung, or self-formation, and has general and subject-specific branches (Hopmann, 2007; Alexander, 2004).

        • Hopmann, S. (2007). Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal, 6(2), 109–124. doi
        • Westbury, I., Hopmann, S., & Riquarts, K. (Eds.). (2000). Teaching as a reflective practice: The German Didaktik tradition. Lawrence Erlbaum.
        • Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(1), 7–33. doi
        Difference-in-differences

        A quasi-experimental design comparing the change over time in a treated group with the change in an untreated one. It rests on the assumption that both groups would otherwise have moved in parallel.

        • Angrist, J. D., & Pischke, J.-S. (2009). Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist's companion. Princeton University Press. doi
        • Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (1994). Minimum wages and employment: A case study of the fast-food industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The American Economic Review, 84(4), 772–793. doi
        Differential item functioning

        "For a particular item in a test, a statistical indicator of the extent to which different groups of test takers who are at the same ability level have different frequencies of correct responses" (AERA et al., 2014). A flag for investigation, not proof of bias.

        • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
        • Holland, P. W., & Wainer, H. (Eds.). (1993). Differential item functioning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi
        Differentiation

        An approach in which teachers proactively adapt curricula, methods, resources, activities and products to the diverse needs of students (Tomlinson et al., 2003). Content, process, product and learning environment can each be adapted.

        • Tomlinson, C. A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C. M., Moon, T. R., Brimijoin, K., Conover, L. A., & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating instruction in response to student readiness, interest, and learning profile in academically diverse classrooms: A review of literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27(2–3), 119–145. doi
        • Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners (2nd ed.). ASCD.
        • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
        Diffusion of innovations

        Rogers’s account of how a new practice spreads through a population over time, through adopter categories from innovators to laggards, and according to how an innovation is perceived on attributes such as relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability (Rogers, 2003). The craft series’ guide 19, Adoption and change in schools, covers it in detail.

        • Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press.
        Digital inclusion

        Policy and practice aimed at all three divides rather than the first alone: connectivity, but also skills, support, relevant content and the recognition of what people do online. A device count is not a measure of it.

        • van Dijk, J. A. G. M. (2006). Digital divide research, achievements and shortcomings. Poetics, 34(4–5), 221–235. doi
        • Scheerder, A., van Deursen, A., & van Dijk, J. (2017). Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes: A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide. Telematics and Informatics, 34(8), 1607–1624. doi
        Digital wellbeing

        How a person's use of digital technology affects their health, relationships and sense of control, and the habits and design choices that support a healthy balance.

        • Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173–182. doi
        • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2024). Social media and adolescent health. The National Academies Press. doi
        • Haidt, J. (2024). The anxious generation: How the great rewiring of childhood is causing an epidemic of mental illness. Penguin Press. anxiousgeneration.com
        Direct instruction and Direct Instruction (Engelmann)

        Lower-case direct instruction usually means explicit, teacher-led teaching, though Rosenshine (2008) lists five meanings. Capitalised Direct Instruction names Siegfried Engelmann's scripted, carefully sequenced programmes, which have their own large evidence base (Stockard et al., 2018).

        • Rosenshine, B. (2008). Five meanings of direct instruction. Center on Innovation & Improvement.
        • Stockard, J., Wood, T. W., Coughlin, C., & Rasplica Khoury, C. (2018). The effectiveness of Direct Instruction curricula: A meta-analysis of a half century of research. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 479–507. doi
        • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
        Disciplinary knowledge

        Knowledge of how a subject generates, tests and revises its claims. In geography it “considers how geographical knowledge originates and is revised” (Ofsted, 2021c).

        • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
        • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
        • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
        Disciplinary literacy

        The reading, writing and talk particular to a subject, such as sourcing a document in history or reading a proof line by line in mathematics (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008).

        • Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–59. doi
        • Shanahan, C., Shanahan, T., & Misischia, C. (2011). Analysis of expert readers in three disciplines: History, mathematics, and chemistry. Journal of Literacy Research, 43(4), 393–429. doi
        • Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. doi
        Discovery learning

        Learning in which learners find the idea for themselves. Unassisted, it trails explicit instruction; enhanced with feedback, worked examples, scaffolding or explanations, it beats other methods (Alfieri et al., 2011).

        • Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 1–18. doi
        • Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. doi
        • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
        Disruptive innovation

        The theory that a new model first serves people the existing system does not, then improves until it displaces the old one; Christensen, Horn and Johnson applied it to schools (Christensen et al., 2008).

        C23 Christensen's theory, applied to schooling with a forecast that by 2019 about half of high school courses would be delivered online. That did not happen, and it has been widely questioned (Christensen et al., 2008).

        • Christensen, C. M., Horn, M. B., & Johnson, C. W. (2008). Disrupting class: How disruptive innovation will change the way the world learns. McGraw-Hill.
        • Glazer, N. (2008, August 19). Something's better than nothing [Review of the book Disrupting class, by C. M. Christensen, M. B. Horn, & C. W. Johnson]. Education Next. educationnext.org
        • Christensen, C. M., Raynor, M. E., & McDonald, R. (2015, December). What is disruptive innovation? Harvard Business Review, 93(12), 44–53. hbr.org
        Distributed leadership

        An account of leadership as a practice stretched over leaders, followers and the situation, rather than a set of posts (Spillane et al., 2004; Spillane, 2006). It describes how leadership happens; it is not by itself a recommendation to delegate.

        • Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2004). Towards a theory of leadership practice: A distributed perspective. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 36(1), 3–34. doi
        • Spillane, J. P. (2006). Distributed leadership. Jossey-Bass.
        Domestication of technology

        This primer's term for teachers adapting a new tool to the practice they already have, so it serves familiar ends (after Cuban, 1986, 2001).

        • Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
        • Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Harvard University Press. doi
        • Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., & Peck, C. (2001). High access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 813–834. doi
        Double-loop learning

        Learning in which a person questions not only the action and its result but the values and assumptions that produced the action. Heutagogy takes it from Argyris and Schön and makes it the difference between self-directed and self-determined learning (Blaschke, 2012).

        • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
        • Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1978). Organizational learning: A theory of action perspective. Addison-Wesley.
        Drivers of change

        The forces that move the issue being studied, sorted in practice by how certain they are and how far the user can influence them. Sorting them is the step that turns a scan into a scenario.

        • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
        • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
        Dyslexia

        A learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling (Rose, 2009). It occurs across the range of intellectual abilities.

        • Rose, J. (2009). Identifying and teaching children and young people with dyslexia and literacy difficulties. Department for Children, Schools and Families.
        E
        E-assessment

        Assessment delivered, captured or marked by computer, from on-screen examinations to automatically marked practice. It changes access, security and speed of reporting more than it changes what is being claimed.

        • Yamamoto, K., Shin, H. J., & Khorramdel, L. (2018). Multistage adaptive testing design in international large-scale assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(4), 16–27. doi
        Early childhood education and care

        Provision for children from birth to the start of compulsory school, combining education and care in proportions that differ by country. Effects on children depend strongly on quality rather than attendance (Sylva et al., 2011).

        • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2011). Pre-school quality and educational outcomes at age 11: Low quality has little benefit. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 9(2), 109–124. doi
        • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from pre-school to end of Key Stage 1 (SSU/SF/2004/01). Department for Education and Skills. dera.ioe.ac.uk
        • Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900–1902. doi
        Early intervention

        Help given as soon as a difficulty is noticed, rather than after a learner has fallen far behind or received a diagnosis. The UN committee lists it with support and reasonable accommodation as part of inclusive education (Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2016).

        • Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2016). General comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education (CRPD/C/GC/4). United Nations. docs.un.org
        • Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. doi
        Ecological systems theory

        Development seen as happening inside nested systems: the microsystem of direct settings, the mesosystem linking them, the exosystem of settings that affect the child indirectly, and the macrosystem of culture, law and belief (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

        • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Harvard University Press.
        Economic evaluation and cost-effectiveness

        Analysis of what a programme consumes as well as what it achieves. Cost-effectiveness compares outcomes per unit of cost against alternatives; cost-benefit analysis puts a monetary value on the benefits. Costs are built up by the ingredients method, which lists every resource a programme needs (Hollands et al., 2020).

        • Hollands, F., Pratt-Williams, J., & Shand, R. (2020). Cost analysis standards & guidelines 1.0. Cost Analysis in Practice (CAP) Project. eed.communities.ed.gov
        • Levin, H. M., McEwan, P. J., Belfield, C., Bowden, A. B., & Shand, R. (2018). Economic evaluation in education: Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis (3rd ed.). Sage.
        EdTech Matthew effect

        Reich's name for the pattern in which open educational technology reaches the already educated first, so learners with more socioeconomic resources benefit most (Reich, 2020).

        • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can't transform education. Harvard University Press.
        • Hansen, J. D., & Reich, J. (2015). Democratizing education? Examining access and usage patterns in massive open online courses. Science, 350(6265), 1245–1248. doi
        Education as a public good

        The view that education's benefits reach beyond the person educated, to fellow citizens, the economy and democratic life. Labaree (1997) contrasts it with education as a private good used to get ahead.

        • Labaree, D. F. (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal, 34(1), 39–81. doi
        • International Commission on the Futures of Education. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO. doi
        Education for sustainable development

        UNESCO’s programme of education that “empowers people with the knowledge, skills, values, attitudes and behaviors to live in a way that is good for the environment, economy, and society” (UNESCO, n.d.-b).

        • UNESCO. (n.d.-b). Education for sustainable development. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from unesco.org
        • International Commission on the Futures of Education. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO. doi
        Educational change

        The general field concerned with how practice in schools and systems alters, why most attempts fail, and what distinguishes the ones that last.

        • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
        • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
        • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
        Educational Framework for Immersive Learning

        A framework that treats presence as the central criterion of immersive learning, shaped by the technology and by learners' motivation, cognition and emotion (Dengel & Mägdefrau, 2018).

        • Dengel, A., & Mägdefrau, J. (2018). Immersive learning explored: Subjective and objective factors influencing learning outcomes in immersive educational virtual environments. In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 608–615). IEEE. doi
        Educational radio and television

        Broadcast or closed-circuit programmes made for schools, such as the Ohio School of the Air from 1929 and closed-circuit school television from the 1950s (Kupfer, 2017; Keeler, 2018).

        • Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
        • Kupfer, S. (2017, June 23). "The flame of living genius": The Ohio School of the Air. Ohio Memory. ohiomemory.ohiohistory.org
        • Keeler, A. (2018). Old new media: Closed-circuit television and the classroom. Convergence, 24(6), 538–553. doi
        Educative curriculum materials

        Materials intended to promote teacher learning in addition to student learning, designed to support teachers rather than merely to script them (Ball & Cohen, 1996; Davis & Krajcik, 2005).

        • Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1996). Reform by the book: What is—or might be—the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform? Educational Researcher, 25(9), 6–14. doi
        • Davis, E. A., & Krajcik, J. S. (2005). Designing educative curriculum materials to promote teacher learning. Educational Researcher, 34(3), 3–14. doi
        • Remillard, J. T. (2005). Examining key concepts in research on teachers' use of mathematics curricula. Review of Educational Research, 75(2), 211–246. doi
        Effect size

        A difference between groups expressed in standard deviations, so that results on different scales can be compared. Its arithmetic, including confidence intervals and statistical power, is in the craft series’ Basic statistics guide (18).

        • Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253. doi
        • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
        • Baird, M. D., & Pane, J. F. (2019). Translating standardized effects of education programs into more interpretable metrics. Educational Researcher, 48(4), 217–228. doi
        Effect size benchmarks

        Kraft's benchmarks for randomised trials of education interventions with standardised test outcomes: below 0.05 standard deviations is small, 0.05 to below 0.20 is medium, and 0.20 or more is large (Kraft, 2020).

        • Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253. doi
        Efficacy and effectiveness

        Efficacy is whether a programme can work under favourable conditions, usually with its developers close by. Effectiveness is whether it does work at normal scale in ordinary hands. Effects are usually smaller in the second.

        • Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253. doi
        • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
        Embodied cognition

        The view that cognitive processes are rooted in the body's interactions with the world. It houses several distinct claims of different strength (Wilson, 2002).

        • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
        • Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645. doi
        • Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying perspective for psychology. WIREs Cognitive Science, 1(4), 586–596. doi
        Embodied design

        The craft of building learning activities and materials that draw on how people naturally move and perceive, and then connect that experience to disciplinary ideas (Abrahamson & Lindgren, 2022).

        • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
        • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5, 81. doi
        • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
        Embodied learning

        Learning designs and research that apply embodied cognition to education, including gesture, hands-on materials, physical activity and interactive media (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018).

        • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
        • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
        • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
        Emergency remote teaching

        "A temporary shift of instructional delivery to an alternate delivery mode due to crisis circumstances", distinct from planned online learning (Hodges et al., 2020).

        • Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020, March 27). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. EDUCAUSE Review. er.educause.edu
        Empowerment evaluation

        A participatory approach in which the evaluator supports programme staff and participants to evaluate their own work, with capacity and ownership as intended outcomes (Fetterman, 1994).

        • Fetterman, D. M. (1994). Empowerment evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 15(1), 1–15. doi
        • Fetterman, D. M., Kaftarian, S. J., & Wandersman, A. (Eds.). (1996). Empowerment evaluation: Knowledge and tools for self-assessment and accountability. Sage.
        Enacted curriculum

        What is actually taught: the topics given time, the examples chosen, the demand set. TIMSS calls it the implemented curriculum, "the actual instructional practices and learning experiences that occur within the classroom".

        • Bakan Kalaycioglu, D., Reynolds, K. A., Fishbein, B., Gonzalez, E., & von Davier, M. (2026). Intended, implemented, and attained mathematics and science curricula at the eighth grade: Findings from TIMSS 2023. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. doi
        • Remillard, J. T. (2005). Examining key concepts in research on teachers’ use of mathematics curricula. Review of Educational Research, 75(2), 211–246. doi
        • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
        Enduring understandings

        Statements of what students should still grasp long after the details are forgotten. They are written as full sentences, because an abstract noun hides the claim.

        • Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). ASCD.
        • McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2012). Understanding by Design framework [White paper]. ASCD. files.ascd.org
        Enlightenment model

        The account in which research enters policy not as an answer to a question but as a slow accumulation of concepts, generalisations and framings that change how a problem is understood (Weiss, 1986).

        • Weiss, C. H. (1986). The circuitry of enlightenment. Knowledge, 8(2), 274–281. doi
        • Weiss, C. H. (1979). The many meanings of research utilization. Public Administration Review, 39(5), 426–431. doi
        Equity and equality

        Equality is the same provision for everyone. Equity is provision matched to what different people need in order to reach a comparable standing. A system can be perfectly equal and deeply inequitable at once, which is why the two words are not interchangeable.

        • OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
        • Fraser, N. (1995). From redistribution to recognition? Dilemmas of justice in a “post-socialist” age. New Left Review, I(212), 68–93. newleftreview.org
        Equity funding

        Additional money attached to need rather than headcount: disadvantage, language, special educational needs, remoteness. What such funding does to attainment gaps is the subject of Equity and educational disadvantage (C19); this primer covers only how it is allocated.

        • OECD. (2017). The funding of school education: Connecting resources and learning. OECD Reviews of School Resources. OECD Publishing. doi
        • Jackson, C. K., Johnson, R. C., & Persico, C. (2016). The effects of school spending on educational and economic outcomes: Evidence from school finance reforms. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(1), 157–218. doi
        • Levačić, R. (2008). Financing schools: Evolving patterns of autonomy and control. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 36(2), 221–234. doi
        ESSA tiers of evidence

        Four levels in US guidance: strong evidence needs a well-designed experimental study, moderate a quasi-experimental one, promising a correlational study with controls, and the fourth only a well-specified logic model (US Department of Education, 2016).

        • US Department of Education. (2016). Non-regulatory guidance: Using evidence to strengthen education investments. ed.gov
        Essential questions

        Open questions that frame a unit and keep returning, chosen to provoke inquiry into the big ideas rather than to be answered once.

        • Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). ASCD.
        • McTighe, J., & Wiggins, G. (2012). Understanding by Design framework [White paper]. ASCD. files.ascd.org
        Ethnography

        Extended, close observation of a setting, aiming to describe it as its participants experience it. Heath (1983) is a classic educational example, following children’s language across home and school.

        • Heath, S. B. (1983). Ways with words: Language, life, and work in communities and classrooms. Cambridge University Press.
        • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
        Evaluability assessment

        A short, structured check on whether a programme can usefully be evaluated: are its goals clear, is its theory plausible, are the data available, and would anyone act on the answer (Wholey, 1987; Craig & Campbell, 2015)?

        • Wholey, J. S. (1987). Evaluability assessment: Developing program theory. New Directions for Program Evaluation, 1987(33), 77–92. doi
        • Craig, P., & Campbell, M. (2015). Evaluability assessment: A systematic approach to deciding whether and how to evaluate programmes and policies [Working paper]. What Works Scotland. whatworksscotland.ac.uk
        Evaluation against research

        Research sets its own questions and aims at knowledge that generalises; an evaluation answers questions set by a programme and its users, about that programme, and ends in a judgement and usually a recommendation (Levin-Rozalis, 2003).

        • Levin-Rozalis, M. (2003). Evaluation and research: Differences and similarities. The Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, 18(2), 1–31. doi
        Evaluation of professional development

        Evaluation of training for teachers and staff. Guskey (2002) sets out five levels: reactions, learning, organisation support and change, use of new knowledge and skills, and student learning outcomes.

        • Guskey, T. R. (2002). Does it make a difference? Evaluating professional development. Educational Leadership, 59(6), 45–51. ascd.org
        • Guskey, T. R. (2014). Planning professional learning. Educational Leadership, 71(8), 10–16. tguskey.com
        Evaluative rubrics and reasoning

        The explicit path from evidence to a value conclusion: criteria saying what matters, and standards saying what weak, adequate and strong performance would look like on each, agreed before the data arrive (Davidson, 2005).

        • Davidson, E. J. (2005). Evaluation methodology basics: The nuts and bolts of sound evaluation. Sage.
        Evidence-informed policy

        Policy made with explicit reference to research, while acknowledging that research cannot settle questions of value, priority or timing. Usually preferred to "evidence-based" because it claims less and describes practice better (Cairney & Oliver, 2017).

        • Cairney, P., & Oliver, K. (2017). Evidence-based policymaking is not like evidence-based medicine, so how far should you go to bridge the divide between evidence and policy? Health Research Policy and Systems, 15(1), 35. doi
        • Cairney, P. (2016). The politics of evidence-based policy making. Palgrave Macmillan. doi
        • Weiss, C. H. (1979). The many meanings of research utilization. Public Administration Review, 39(5), 426–431. doi
        Executive function

        The mental processes that allow planning, focus and self-control: inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2013). They develop through childhood and adolescence.

        • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. doi
        • Blakemore, S.-J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3–4), 296–312. doi
        Exemplars

        Samples of work at different levels of quality, discussed with students so that they can see what a standard means. Carless and Boud (2018) treat analysing exemplars as one of the two main ways to build feedback literacy.

        • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
        • Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(8), 1315–1325. doi
        • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. doi
        Exit tickets

        A short written response collected as students leave, used to check understanding or to decide where the next lesson starts. Leahy et al. (2005) call them exit passes.

        • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
        Experiential learning

        Learning through doing and reflecting on experience, often described with Kolb's (1984) cycle of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation and active experimentation.

        • Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall.
        • Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi; Macmillan.
        Expertise reversal effect

        The finding that techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness, and even have negative consequences, with more experienced learners, so help should fade as competence grows (Kalyuga et al., 2003).

        • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 23–31. doi
        • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
        Explicit instruction

        Teaching in which new content is presented clearly in small steps, modelled, practised with guidance and checked, before students work independently (Rosenshine, 2012).

        • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
        • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
        • Rosenshine, B. (2008). Five meanings of direct instruction. Center on Innovation & Improvement.
        External and ecological validity

        How far a finding holds beyond the sample studied, and how far the study conditions resemble ordinary life. A trial can have high internal validity and little of either.

        • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
        • Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
        Externalisation

        Reaching outward to an external reference to settle an internal argument. Steiner-Khamsi (2016) found "it is precisely at a moment of heightened policy contestation that externalization occurs".

        • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (Ed.). (2004). The global politics of educational borrowing and lending. Teachers College Press.
        • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2016). New directions in policy borrowing research. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(3), 381–390. doi
        • Waldow, F., Takayama, K., & Sung, Y.-K. (2014). Rethinking the pattern of external policy referencing: Media discourses over the ‘Asian Tigers’’ PISA success in Australia, Germany and South Korea. Comparative Education, 50(3), 302–321. doi
        F
        Factory-model narrative

        The claim that schools were designed on the model of factories and have not changed since. Historians dispute it as a single story (Watters, 2015).

        • Watters, A. (2015, April 25). The invented history of "the factory model of education". Hack Education. hackeducation.com
        • Callahan, R. E. (1962). Education and the cult of efficiency: A study of the social forces that have shaped the administration of the public schools. University of Chicago Press. press.uchicago.edu
        Fade-out

        The disappearance of an early gain after a programme ends; lasting effects need malleable, fundamental skills that would not have developed anyway, a well-timed intervention, or a good environment afterwards (Bailey et al., 2017).

        • Bailey, D. H., Duncan, G. J., Odgers, C. L., & Yu, W. (2017). Persistence and fadeout in the impacts of child and adolescent interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 10(1), 7–39. doi
        • Durkin, K., Lipsey, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Wiesen, S. E. (2022). Effects of a statewide pre-kindergarten program on children’s achievement and behavior through sixth grade. Developmental Psychology, 58(3), 470–484. doi
        • Lipsey, M. W., Farran, D. C., & Durkin, K. (2018). Effects of the Tennessee Prekindergarten Program on children’s achievement and behavior through third grade. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 45, 155–176. doi
        Fairness and bias

        Fairness is "the validity of test score interpretations for intended use(s) for individuals from all relevant subgroups" (AERA et al., 2014). Bias is systematic error that makes scores mean different things for different groups.

        • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
        • Liang, W., Yuksekgonul, M., Mao, Y., Wu, E., & Zou, J. (2023). GPT detectors are biased against non-native English writers. Patterns, 4(7), 100779. doi
        Feed up, feed back and feed forward

        Hattie and Timperley’s (2007) names for the three questions feedback answers: where am I going, how am I going, and where to next.

        • Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. doi
        • Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 3087. doi
        Feedback

        “Information provided by an agent (e.g., teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007). In the control sense used by Ramaprasad (1983) and Sadler (1989), information only counts as feedback if it is used to alter the gap.

        • Ramaprasad, A. (1983). On the definition of feedback. Behavioral Science, 28(1), 4–13. doi
        • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
        • Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. doi
        Feedback intervention theory

        The explanation that feedback moves attention along a hierarchy, and that its effectiveness falls as attention moves away from the task and towards the self (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).

        • Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284. doi
        • Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. doi
        Feedback literacy

        The understandings, capacities and dispositions a student needs to make sense of feedback and use it: appreciating feedback, making judgements, managing affect and taking action (Carless & Boud, 2018).

        • Carless, D., & Boud, D. (2018). The development of student feedback literacy: Enabling uptake of feedback. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(8), 1315–1325. doi
        • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. doi
        Fidelity

        How closely delivery matches the design. One of eight aspects of implementation, alongside dosage, quality, participant responsiveness, programme differentiation, monitoring of comparison conditions, reach and adaptation (Durlak & DuPre, 2008).

        • Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. doi
        • Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI Publication No. 231). University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. fpg.unc.edu
        Fidelity against adaptation

        The question of whether a programme should be delivered as designed or changed to fit its setting. Primer C11 covers it for curriculum and C23 for reform; the working answer in both is to state which parts are tight before allowing the rest to be loose (Fullan & Pomfret, 1977; Thompson & Wiliam, 2007).

        • Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397. doi
        • Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2007, April 9–13). Tight but loose: A conceptual framework for scaling up school reforms [Paper presentation]. Annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States. dylanwiliam.org
        • McLaughlin, M. W. (1976). Implementation as mutual adaptation: Change in classroom organization. Teachers College Record, 77(3), 339–351. doi
        Fidelity, mutual adaptation and enactment

        Three answers to when a curriculum is finished: at the developer's desk, in the negotiation with a school, or in the classroom with students (Fullan & Pomfret, 1977; McLaughlin, 1976; Snyder et al., 1992).

        • Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397. doi
        • McLaughlin, M. W. (1976). Implementation as mutual adaptation: Change in classroom organization. Teachers College Record, 77(3), 339–351. doi
        • Snyder, J., Bolin, F., & Zumwalt, K. (1992). Curriculum implementation. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 402–435). Macmillan.
        First- and second-order barriers

        First-order barriers are the external and institutional conditions around a teacher, such as access, time and training; second-order barriers are internal and personal, rooted in beliefs about teaching (Ertmer, 1999).

        • Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 47–61. doi
        • Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255–284. doi
        • Abedi, E. A., & Ackah-Jnr, F. R. (2023). First-order barriers still matter in teachers’ use of technology: An exploratory study of multi-stakeholder perspectives of technology integration barriers. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, 19(2), 148–165. files.eric.ed.gov
        First- and second-order change

        First-order change makes the existing arrangement work better; second-order change alters the arrangement itself. The distinction comes from Cuban (1988), and explains why most reforms that survive are of the first kind.

        • Cuban, L. (1988). A fundamental puzzle of school reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 69(5), 341–344. eric.ed.gov
        • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
        First-, second- and third-level digital divides

        The first is access to a device and connection; the second is skills and patterns of use (Hargittai, 2002); the third is the tangible outcomes people obtain from using it (van Deursen & Helsper, 2015). Each has its own social gradient.

        • Hargittai, E. (2002). Second-level digital divide: Differences in people’s online skills. First Monday, 7(4). doi
        • van Deursen, A. J. A. M., & Helsper, E. J. (2015). The third-level digital divide: Who benefits most from being online? In L. Robinson, S. R. Cotten, J. Schulz, T. M. Hale, & A. Williams (Eds.), Communication and information technologies annual (pp. 29–52). Emerald. doi
        • Scheerder, A., van Deursen, A., & van Dijk, J. (2017). Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes: A systematic review of the second- and third-level digital divide. Telematics and Informatics, 34(8), 1607–1624. doi
        Five essential supports

        A coherent instructional guidance system, professional capacity, strong parent-community-school ties, a student-centred learning climate and leadership that drives change; Chicago schools strong on most were ten times more likely to improve (Bryk, 2010).

        • Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
        • Bryk, A. S. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(7), 23–30. doi
        Five key strategies of formative assessment

        Three processes—establishing where learners are going, where they are now and how to get there—exercised by the teacher, the learner and their peers, whose nine cells collapse into five key strategies (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008).

        • Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. (2008). Integrating assessment with learning: What will it take to make it work? In C. A. Dwyer (Ed.), The future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning (pp. 53–82). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi
        • Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14. doi
        • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
        Flexible learning spaces

        Spaces designed to support several kinds of activity, often through movable furniture, operable walls and breakout areas. Dovey and Fisher (2014) distinguish convertibility (switching between set-ups) from agility (moving fluidly between activities).

        • Dovey, K., & Fisher, K. (2014). Designing for adaptation: The school as socio-spatial assemblage. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), 43–63. doi
        • Mahat, M., Bradbeer, C., Byers, T., & Imms, W. (2018). Innovative learning environments and teacher change: Defining key concepts (Technical Report 3/2018). University of Melbourne, LEaRN. iletc.com.au
        Flipped classroom

        A design in which students meet new material before class, often through video or reading, and class time is used for practice, discussion and help. Its value depends on what happens in the class time it frees.

        • Lage, M. J., Platt, G. J., & Treglia, M. (2000). Inverting the classroom: A gateway to creating an inclusive learning environment. The Journal of Economic Education, 31(1), 30–43. doi
        • Bergmann, J., & Sams, A. (2012). Flip your classroom: Reach every student in every class every day. International Society for Technology in Education.
        Fluency

        Performing a skill accurately and quickly enough that it no longer occupies attention. In reading it covers accurate, smooth oral reading; in mathematics, Ofsted (2021e) distinguishes this automaticity from conceptual knowledge.

        • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
        • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
        • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
        Foresight

        The structured consideration of ideas about the future in order to make better decisions in the present. It assumes prediction is limited and works with several futures at once (OECD, 2020).

        • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
        • Voros, J. (2003). A generic foresight process framework. Foresight, 5(3), 10–21. doi
        • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
        Formal, non-formal and informal learning

        Formal learning leads to a recognised qualification in an institution; non-formal learning is organised but does not; informal learning happens through work and life without being organised as learning. The boundaries are contested and are measured inconsistently (Clardy, 2018).

        • Clardy, A. (2018). 70-20-10 and the dominance of informal learning: A fact in search of evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 17(2), 153–178. doi
        • Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. doi
        • OECD. (2019). Getting skills right: Future-ready adult learning systems. OECD Publishing. doi
        Formative and summative as uses

        Not types of test but uses of evidence. The same task can report attainment and inform the next step; what makes the use formative is the decision it changes (Black & Wiliam, 2009).

        • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. doi
        • Wiliam, D. (2011). What is assessment for learning? Studies in Educational Evaluation, 37(1), 3–14. doi
        • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7–74. doi
        Formative and summative evaluation

        Formative evaluation is done to improve something while it is still being shaped; summative evaluation is done to reach a verdict about it. Scriven (1996) argues that the same activity can be either, depending on the context it is used in.

        • Scriven, M. (1996). Types of evaluation and types of evaluator. Evaluation Practice, 17(2), 151–161. doi
        • Scriven, M. (1991b). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed.). Sage.
        • Gamble, J. A. A. (2008). A developmental evaluation primer. The J. W. McConnell Family Foundation. mcconnellfoundation.ca
        Four pillars of learning

        The four kinds of learning proposed in the Delors report to UNESCO: learning to know, to do, to live together and to be (Delors et al., 1996).

        • Delors, J., et al. (1996). Learning: The treasure within. Report to UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-first Century. UNESCO Publishing. eric.ed.gov
        • Delors, J. (2013). The treasure within: Learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and learning to be. What is the value of that treasure 15 years after its publication? International Review of Education, 59(3), 319–330. doi
        Four stages of policy borrowing

        A model of how a policy travels in four stages: cross-national attraction, decision, implementation, and internalisation or indigenisation. The decision may be theoretical, practical, a quick fix or phoney (Phillips & Ochs, 2003).

        • Phillips, D., & Ochs, K. (2003). Processes of policy borrowing in education: Some explanatory and analytical devices. Comparative Education, 39(4), 451–461. doi
        • Lam, M.-H. A. (2023). Navigating the policy borrowing process of general education among the eight publicly funded universities in Hong Kong. International Journal of Chinese Education, 12(1). doi
        Full Subject-Based Banding (SG)

        Singapore's replacement for secondary streaming, implemented from 2024 in schools with academic streams. Students share mixed form classes and take subjects at levels G1, G2 or G3 (Ministry of Education, n.d.-a).

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). What you need to know about Full SBB. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
        • Malay Mail. (2019, March 6). Secondary school streaming in Singapore to be abolished in 2024, replaced with subject-based banding. malaymail.com
        Fundamental movement skills

        Basic learned movement patterns, grouped as locomotor, stability and manipulative skills, which “do not occur naturally” and must be taught (Ofsted, 2022; Logan et al., 2012).

        • Logan, S. W., Robinson, L. E., Wilson, A. E., & Lucas, W. A. (2012). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(3), 305–315. doi
        • Ofsted. (2022). Research review series: PE. gov.uk
        • Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. doi
        Funding formulae

        Published rules that convert counts and characteristics into an allocation. Formula funding is what made devolved school budgets administrable at scale, and it encodes priorities that are rarely argued about directly (Levačić, 2008).

        • Levačić, R. (2008). Financing schools: Evolving patterns of autonomy and control. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 36(2), 221–234. doi
        • OECD. (2017). The funding of school education: Connecting resources and learning. OECD Reviews of School Resources. OECD Publishing. doi
        Futures literacy

        UNESCO’s term for the capability of using images of the future well: “the skill that allows people to better understand the role of the future in what they see and do” (UNESCO, n.d.-a; Miller, 2018).

        • Miller, R. (Ed.). (2018). Transforming the future: Anticipation in the 21st century. Routledge. doi
        • UNESCO. (n.d.-a). Futures literacy: An essential competency for the 21st century. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from unesco.org
        Futures thinking

        The general habit of treating the future as plural and partly open, rather than as a single extrapolation of the present. Foresight is its disciplined form.

        • Dator, J. (2009). Alternative futures at the Manoa School. Journal of Futures Studies, 14(2), 1–18. jfsdigital.org
        • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
        • Facer, K. (2011). Learning futures: Education, technology and social change. Routledge. doi
        G
        Gamification

        The use of points, badges, leaderboards and streaks in learning; a meta-analysis found gains in cognitive, motivational and behavioural outcomes, though the motivational and behavioural ones were less stable (Sailer & Homner, 2020).

        • Sailer, M., & Homner, L. (2020). The gamification of learning: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 32(1), 77–112. doi
        • Hanus, M. D., & Fox, J. (2015). Assessing the effects of gamification in the classroom: A longitudinal study on intrinsic motivation, social comparison, satisfaction, effort, and academic performance. Computers & Education, 80, 152–161. doi
        GeBIZ (SG)

        Singapore's government electronic business system, on which requirements, procedures and evaluation criteria are published, and on which "an award notice with the name of the supplier and the contract sum" is posted (Ministry of Finance, 2025, 2026).

        • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2026). Procurement processes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
        • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
        Gender gaps

        Differences in performance, participation and subject choice between girls and boys. They are usually smaller than socio-economic gaps, and they run in different directions by subject, which is why a single "gender gap" figure is rarely informative.

        • OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
        • Flore, P. C., Mulder, J., & Wicherts, J. M. (2018). The influence of gender stereotype threat on mathematics test scores of Dutch high school students: A registered report. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 3(2), 140–174. doi
        Generative learning activities

        Tasks that ask learners to make sense of material actively, such as summarising, explaining or drawing. Summarising after each segment improved learning from a VR lesson (Fiorella & Mayer, 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018).

        • Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 717–741. doi
        • Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). Learning science in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 785–797. doi
        Generative topics

        In Teaching for Understanding, topics that are central to a discipline, accessible to students and connectable to other topics inside and outside it (Perkins & Blythe, 1994).

        • Perkins, D., & Blythe, T. (1994). Putting understanding up front. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 4–7. ascd.org
        • Wiske, M. S. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. Jossey-Bass.
        • Project Zero. (n.d.-a). Teaching for understanding. Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from pz.harvard.edu
        Geographical enquiry

        Investigation driven by a geographical question, using data as evidence, with pupils interpreting and reflecting. It depends on secure prior knowledge and careful structuring (Ofsted, 2021c).

        • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
        Gesture

        Movement of the hands and body that accompanies or replaces speech and carries meaning. It can reveal and change a speaker's thinking (Goldin-Meadow & Alibali, 2013).

        • Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture’s role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257–283. doi
        • Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Gesturing makes learning last. Cognition, 106(2), 1047–1058. doi
        • Hostetter, A. B. (2011). When do gestures communicate? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 297–315. doi
        Gesture–speech mismatch

        When a learner's gestures express information that their words do not. Mismatch indicates transitional knowledge and readiness to learn (Church & Goldin-Meadow, 1986).

        • Church, R. B., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1986). The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge. Cognition, 23(1), 43–71. doi
        • Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture’s role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257–283. doi
        Gifted education

        Provision for students with high ability or potential, through acceleration, enrichment, grouping or specialised programmes. Singapore is changing its approach from 2024 (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2024).

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, August 19). Strengthening support for higher-ability learners [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
        • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
        • Kim, M. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of enrichment programs on gifted students. Gifted Child Quarterly, 60(2), 102–116. doi
        Global Education Reform Movement (GERM)

        Sahlberg’s (2012) name for five features of education reform spreading since the 1980s: standardisation, a focus on core subjects, low-risk pedagogy, corporate management models and test-based accountability. A polemical term as well as an analytical one.

        • Sahlberg, P. (2016). The global educational reform movement and its impact on schooling. In K. Mundy, A. Green, B. Lingard, & A. Verger (Eds.), The handbook of global education policy (pp. 128–144). Wiley. doi
        • Sahlberg, P. (2012, January 2). Global educational reform movement is here! [Blog post]. pasisahlberg.com
        Goal-free evaluation

        Evaluation in which the evaluator is deliberately kept from the programme's stated goals, so as to record what it is actually doing and to catch effects nobody intended, including harms (Scriven, 1991b, quoted in Youker, 2024).

        • Scriven, M. (1991a). Prose and cons about goal-free evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 12(1), 55–62. doi
        • Scriven, M. (1991b). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed.). Sage.
        • Youker, B. W. (2024). Scriven’s goal-free evaluation. Journal of MultiDisciplinary Evaluation, 20(47), 28–31. jmde.com
        Governance

        How a system distributes three things: the right to decide, the duty to fund, and the obligation to explain. Most arguments about schooling are arguments about that distribution, conducted in other vocabulary.

        • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
        • Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57–74. doi
        • Hood, C. (1991). A public management for all seasons? Public Administration, 69(1), 3–19. doi
        Government, government-aided and independent schools (SG)

        Government schools are run by the ministry; government-aided schools were "set up by various community organisations" and charge the same standardised fees; independent schools "have the flexibility to set their own fees and develop their academic and non-academic programmes" (Ministry of Education, n.d.-d). Specialised independent schools serve particular talents; specialised schools serve alternative pathways.

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-d). Types of secondary schools. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
        Grade inflation

        A rise in grades over time without a matching rise in the performance they describe. Strathern (1997) describes the mechanism: once a grade becomes an expectation, it stops discriminating.

        • Strathern, M. (1997). ‘Improving ratings’: Audit in the British University system. European Review, 5(3), 305–321. doi
        • Ofqual. (2020b). Grading GCSEs, AS and A levels in 2021 (Ofqual/20/6720/2). Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
        Grading and reporting

        Turning performance into symbols for an audience. Brookhart et al. (2016) find that grades combine attainment with effort and behaviour, which makes them useful predictors and poor measurements.

        • Brookhart, S. M., Guskey, T. R., Bowers, A. J., McMillan, J. H., Smith, J. K., Smith, L. F., Stevens, M. T., & Welsh, M. E. (2016). A century of grading research: Meaning and value in the most common educational measure. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 803–848. doi
        • Kohn, A. (2011). The case against grades. Educational Leadership, 69(3), 28–33. ascd.org
        Gradual release of responsibility

        A model in which responsibility for a task passes from teacher to student through modelling, guided practice, and practice or application (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983).

        • Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, M. C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8(3), 317–344. doi
        • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
        Graduate premium

        The earnings gain from a degree: about 20% in average net lifetime earnings for English graduates, an average that hides substantial variation by subject and university group (Britton et al., 2020).

        • Britton, J., Dearden, L., van der Erve, L., & Waltmann, B. (2020). The impact of undergraduate degrees on lifetime earnings. Institute for Fiscal Studies. ifs.org.uk
        Grammar of schooling

        "The regular structures and rules that organize the work of instruction", such as age grades, periods and subjects (Tyack & Tobin, 1994, p. 454).

        C23 "The regular structures and rules that organize the work of instruction", such as age grades, periods and subjects (Tyack & Tobin, 1994, p. 454). Primer C02 covers it in depth.

        • Tyack, D., & Tobin, W. (1994). The "grammar" of schooling: Why has it been so hard to change? American Educational Research Journal, 31(3), 453–479. doi
        • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
        • Courtney, S. J., & Mann, B. (2021). Thinking with 'lexical' features to reconceptualize the 'grammar' of schooling: Shifting the focus from school to society. Journal of Educational Change, 22(3), 401–421. doi
        Grey literature

        Reports, theses, evaluations and working papers not published in journals. It matters because published studies report larger effects than unpublished ones (Polanin et al., 2016), so a review that skips it is biased upward.

        • Polanin, J. R., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). Estimating the difference between published and unpublished effect sizes: A meta-review. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 207–236. doi
        • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
        Grounded cognition and simulation

        The view that knowledge is represented through partial re-enactments, or simulations, in the brain's systems for perception, action and introspection, rather than only as abstract symbols (Barsalou, 2008).

        • Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645. doi
        • Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2008). A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 102(1–3), 59–70. doi
        Grounding by interaction

        A middle ground between embodied and disembodied views of concepts, proposed on the argument that motor activation during thought can equally be accommodated by a disembodied view (Mahon & Caramazza, 2008).

        • Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2008). A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 102(1–3), 59–70. doi
        Growth mindset

        Dweck's idea that what learners believe about their ability affects how they act; brief lessons to change those beliefs show small average effects on attainment, near zero in the best-controlled studies (Macnamara & Burgoyne, 2023).

        • Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
        • Yeager, D. S., Hanselman, P., Walton, G. M., Murray, J. S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., et al. (2019). A national experiment reveals where a growth mindset improves achievement. Nature, 573(7774), 364–369. doi
        • Macnamara, B. N., & Burgoyne, A. P. (2023). Do growth mindset interventions impact students' academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. Psychological Bulletin, 149(3–4), 133–173. doi
        Guided discovery

        Learning in which students work out an idea or rule for themselves with prompts, feedback or examples. Mayer (2004) found it more effective than pure discovery in each research programme he reviewed.

        • Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. doi
        • Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 1–18. doi
        H
        Hawthorne effect

        The idea that being studied changes behaviour. McCambridge et al. (2014) reviewed the evidence and concluded that new concepts are needed to study research participation effects, so it is better used as a caution than as a quantity.

        • McCambridge, J., Witton, J., & Elbourne, D. R. (2014). Systematic review of the Hawthorne effect: New concepts are needed to study research participation effects. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 67(3), 267–277. doi
        • Roethlisberger, F. J., & Dickson, W. J. (1939). Management and the worker. Harvard University Press. doi
        HEAD project (Clever Classrooms)

        A study of 153 classrooms in 27 English primary schools, in which seven design parameters together explained 16% of the variation in pupils' progress over a year (Barrett et al., 2015a).

        • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
        • Barrett, P. S., Zhang, Y., Davies, F., & Barrett, L. C. (2015b). Clever classrooms: Summary report of the HEAD project. University of Salford. usir.salford.ac.uk
        • Barrett, P., Zhang, Y., Moffat, J., & Kobbacy, K. (2013). A holistic, multi-level analysis identifying the impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning. Building and Environment, 59, 678–689. doi
        Head-mounted display (HMD)

        A headset that places screens in front of each eye and tracks head movement, producing immersive VR. Low-cost, high-quality models have been widely available since about 2013 (Wu et al., 2020).

        • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
        • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
        • Saredakis, D., Szpak, A., Birckhead, B., Keage, H. A. D., Rizzo, A., & Loetscher, T. (2020). Factors associated with virtual reality sickness in head-mounted displays: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 96. doi
        Heads of department and subject heads

        Middle leaders responsible for a subject or faculty: schemes of work, standards, staffing of classes, budgets for materials and the professional learning of their teams. Departmental effects on students can exceed school-level effects (Leithwood, 2016).

        • Leithwood, K. (2016). Department-head leadership for school improvement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 15(2), 117–140. doi
        • Lipscombe, K., Tindall-Ford, S., & Lamanna, J. (2021). School middle leadership: A systematic review. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 51(2), 270–288. doi
        Heckman curve

        Heckman’s much-reproduced figure showing returns falling with the age of the people served; it was a stylised pattern, not a plot of estimates, and costed programmes show no such ordering (Rea & Burton, 2020).

        C19 The schematic curve associated with the economic argument for investing in disadvantaged children early; the claim that returns fall steadily with age has been tested and did not hold (Heckman, 2006; Rea & Burton, 2020).

        • Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312(5782), 1900–1902. doi
        • Rea, D., & Burton, T. (2020). New evidence on the Heckman Curve. Journal of Economic Surveys, 34(2), 241–262. doi
        • Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P. A., & Yavitz, A. (2010). The rate of return to the HighScope Perry Preschool Program. Journal of Public Economics, 94(1–2), 114–128. doi
        Heterogeneity

        Real variation in effects across studies, beyond what sampling alone would produce. Where it is large, the average of a meta-analysis describes no actual programme, and the spread is the finding.

        • Slavin, R. E. (2008). Perspectives on evidence-based research in education—What works? Issues in synthesizing educational program evaluations. Educational Researcher, 37(1), 5–14. doi
        • Simpson, A. (2017). The misdirection of public policy: Comparing and combining standardised effect sizes. Journal of Education Policy, 32(4), 450–466. doi
        • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
        Heutagogy

        Defined by Hase and Kenyon in 2000 as the study of self-determined learning, in which the learner negotiates and determines what is learned, how, and how it is assessed. Reviews describe it as an emerging approach rather than an established theory (Moore, 2020).

        • Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. ultiBASE. [Not retrievable at the time of writing; used here as reported by Blaschke (2012) and Moore (2020).]
        • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
        • Moore, R. L. (2020). Developing lifelong learning with heutagogy: Contexts, critiques, and challenges. Distance Education, 41(3), 381–401. doi
        Hidden curriculum

        What students learn from how schooling is organised, rather than from what is formally taught: rules, rankings, routines and who is listened to. It is one reason socialisation happens even when no one plans it.

        C10 What students learn from how school is organised rather than from what is taught: rules, rankings, routines, whose questions get answered. The term is credited to Jackson (1968); Anyon (1980) showed it differing by social class.

        • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
        • Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
        • Anyon, J. (1980). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. Journal of Education, 162(1), 67–92. doi
        High access, low use

        The finding that access to equipment and software seldom led to widespread teacher and student use, and that computer use sustained rather than altered existing patterns of teaching practice (Cuban et al., 2001).

        • Cuban, L., Kirkpatrick, H., & Peck, C. (2001). High access and low use of technologies in high school classrooms: Explaining an apparent paradox. American Educational Research Journal, 38(4), 813–834. doi
        • Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Harvard University Press. doi
        High-information feedback

        Feedback that explains how to improve rather than only correcting or rewarding; across 435 studies it outperformed corrective feedback, which outperformed reinforcement and punishment (Wisniewski et al., 2020).

        • Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 3087. doi
        • Van der Kleij, F. M., Feskens, R. C. W., & Eggen, T. J. H. M. (2015). Effects of feedback in a computer-based learning environment on students’ learning outcomes: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 85(4), 475–511. doi
        • Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153–189. doi
        High-leverage practices

        Core practices of teaching that are especially important for student learning and can be taught to beginners, such as "explaining and modeling content" and "leading a group discussion". TeachingWorks (n.d.) lists 18, building on work by Ball and Forzani (2009).

        • Ball, D. L., & Forzani, F. M. (2009). The work of teaching and the challenge for teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 60(5), 497–511. doi
        • TeachingWorks. (n.d.). High-leverage practices. University of Michigan. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from teachingworks.org
        High-performing education systems

        The small group of systems repeatedly near the top of the international tables, and the body of consultancy and policy literature that explains their success in terms of teacher quality, leadership, system design and reform (Deng & Gopinathan, 2016).

        • Deng, Z., & Gopinathan, S. (2016). PISA and high-performing education systems: Explaining Singapore’s education success. Comparative Education, 52(4), 449–472. doi
        • Barber, M., & Mourshed, M. (2007). How the world’s best-performing school systems come out on top. McKinsey & Company. mckinsey.com
        • Coffield, F. (2012). Why the McKinsey reports will not improve school systems. Journal of Education Policy, 27(1), 131–149. doi
        High-stakes testing

        Testing whose results carry significant consequences for students, teachers or schools, such as certification, admission, funding or public judgement.

        • Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. doi
        • Koretz, D. (2008). Measuring up: What educational testing really tells us. Harvard University Press. jstor.org
        • Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative metasynthesis. Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258–267. doi
        Higher education

        Post-secondary education at degree level and above, delivered by universities and, in many systems, by polytechnics and colleges. Worldwide enrolment as a share of the relevant age group roughly doubled between 2000 and 2024 (World Bank, 2026).

        • World Bank. (2026). School enrollment, tertiary (% gross), World [Data set, indicator SE.TER.ENRR; source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics]. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from data.worldbank.org
        • Britton, J., Dearden, L., van der Erve, L., & Waltmann, B. (2020). The impact of undergraduate degrees on lifetime earnings. Institute for Fiscal Studies. ifs.org.uk
        Hinge questions

        A question placed at a point where the lesson could go two ways, asked so that every student responds, and used to choose the way (Leahy et al., 2005).

        • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
        • Wiliam, D. (2014, April). Formative assessment and contingency in the regulation of learning processes [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA, United States. fame-michigan.nyc3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com
        Historical thinking

        The disciplinary practices of history: establishing significance, using primary source evidence, identifying continuity and change, analysing cause and consequence, taking historical perspectives and weighing the ethical dimension (Seixas & Morton, 2013).

        • Seixas, P., & Morton, T. (2013). The big six historical thinking concepts. Nelson Education. historicalthinking.ca
        • Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. doi
        • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
        Holistic and analytic marking

        Holistic marking gives one judgement of the whole piece; analytic marking scores separate criteria. Analytic marking generates more information for feedback and takes longer; holistic marking is quicker and harder to act on.

        • Panadero, E., & Jonsson, A. (2013). The use of scoring rubrics for formative assessment purposes revisited: A review. Educational Research Review, 9, 129–144. doi
        Holistic education

        Education that aims to develop the whole person, intellectually, morally, socially, physically and aesthetically, not only academically. Singapore describes its student development programmes in these five domains (Ministry of Education, 2021).

        • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2021). Character & citizenship education (CCE) syllabus: Secondary. moe.gov.sg
        • Tan, J. (2013). Aims of schooling for the twenty-first century: The Desired Outcomes of Education. In Z. Deng, S. Gopinathan, & C. K.-E. Lee (Eds.), Globalization and the Singapore curriculum (pp. 33–47). Springer. doi
        Home learning environment

        The books, talk, routines, space and adult attention available to a child at home. It is the strongest single predictor in much early-years research, and the thing most often assumed rather than asked about by a programme design.

        • von Hippel, P. T., Workman, J., & Downey, D. B. (2018). Inequality in reading and math skills forms mainly before kindergarten: A replication, and partial correction, of “Are schools the great equalizer?” Sociology of Education, 91(4), 323–357. doi
        • Malamud, O., & Pop-Eleches, C. (2011). Home computer use and the development of human capital. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(2), 987–1027. doi
        Horizon scanning

        “The systematic collection of insights on emerging trends and weak signals of change to identify potential threats, risks and opportunities” (Government Office for Science, 2024).

        • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
        • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026b). Our approach. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
        Hortatory tools

        Policy tools that work by persuasion, exhortation, published values or symbolic action rather than by rules, money or authority. Schneider and Ingram (1990) treat them as one family of tools with their own behavioural assumptions. They are the cheapest instrument and usually the weakest.

        • Schneider, A., & Ingram, H. (1990). Behavioral assumptions of policy tools. The Journal of Politics, 52(2), 510–529. doi
        Human capital

        Knowledge, skills and health treated as a form of capital that raises a person's productivity and earnings, largely through deliberate investment such as schooling (Schultz, 1961; Becker, 1964).

        • Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in human capital. American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17.
        • Becker, G. S. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis, with special reference to education. National Bureau of Economic Research.
        • Sen, A. (1997). Editorial: Human capital and human capability. World Development, 25(12), 1959–1961. doi
        Human flourishing

        A life going well in the full sense, not only materially. Several philosophers argue it should be the overall aim of education (Kristjánsson, 2020; Brighouse et al., 2018).

        • Kristjánsson, K. (2020). Flourishing as the aim of education: A neo-Aristotelian view. Routledge. routledge.com
        • Brighouse, H., Ladd, H. F., Loeb, S., & Swift, A. (2018). Educational goods: Values, evidence, and decision-making. University of Chicago Press. doi
        Human rights model of disability

        The view, turned into law by the UN Convention, that barriers within the community and society, rather than personal impairments, exclude persons with disabilities (Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2016).

        • United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Article 24: Education. social.desa.un.org
        • Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2016). General comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education (CRPD/C/GC/4). United Nations. docs.un.org
        Human-centred AI

        Design and policy that treat artificial intelligence as subordinate to human judgement, rights and agency. UNESCO makes “a human-centred mindset” the first dimension of both its AI competency frameworks (Miao, Shiohira, & Lao, 2024).

        • Miao, F., Shiohira, K., & Lao, N. (2024). AI competency framework for students. UNESCO. unesco.org
        • Miao, F., & Cukurova, M. (2024). AI competency framework for teachers. UNESCO. unesco.org
        Hybrid

        What usually results when an ambitious reform meets an existing classroom: some new language and materials over a largely undisturbed core (Cuban, 1984, reported in Elmore, 1996).

        • Cuban, L. (1984). How teachers taught: Constancy and change in American classrooms, 1890–1980. Longman.
        • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
        • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
        Hybrid and HyFlex rooms

        Hybrid rooms let some learners join from the room and others online at the same time. HyFlex courses let each student choose, session by session, whether to attend in the room, live online or online later (Beatty, 2019).

        • Beatty, B. J. (2019). Hybrid-flexible course design: Implementing student-directed hybrid classes. EdTech Books. doi
        • Raes, A., Detienne, L., Windey, I., & Depaepe, F. (2020). A systematic literature review on synchronous hybrid learning: Gaps identified. Learning Environments Research, 23(3), 269–290. doi
        Hype cycle

        Gartner's curve of expectations for a technology, from innovation trigger through a peak and trough to a plateau. A description, not a tested law (Dedehayir & Steinert, 2016).

        • Dedehayir, O., & Steinert, M. (2016). The hype cycle model: A review and future directions. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 108, 28–41. doi
        • Gartner. (n.d.). Gartner hype cycle. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from gartner.com
        I
        ICAP framework

        A framework that sorts engagement into four modes, passive, active, constructive and interactive, and predicts that learning rises from each to the next. What counts is the thinking, not the movement (Chi & Wylie, 2014).

        • Chi, M. T. H., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP framework: Linking cognitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educational Psychologist, 49(4), 219–243. doi
        • Mayer, R. E. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59(1), 14–19. doi
        ICILS

        The IEA’s International Computer and Information Literacy Study. It assesses eighth-grade students’ "ability to use computers to investigate, create, and communicate", in cycles from 2013 (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, n.d.).

        • International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement. (n.d.). ICILS: International Computer and Information Literacy Study. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from iea.nl
        • Fraillon, J. (Ed.). (2025). An international perspective on digital literacy: Results from ICILS 2023. Springer. doi
        ICT committees and coordinators

        The people and groups in a school that decide which digital tools are used, how devices and accounts are managed, and who supports them. Titles and powers vary widely; in many schools the role is held by a teacher alongside a full teaching load.

          Identity

          A person's sense of who they are, including their values, roles and group memberships. Erikson (1968) described building an identity as the central task of adolescence.

          • Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W. W. Norton.
          Immersion

          The objective properties of a system: how inclusive, extensive, surrounding and vivid its display is, and how well it matches the user's body (Slater & Wilbur, 1997).

          • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
          • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
          Immersive learning

          "Learning activities initiated by a mediated or medially enriched environment that evokes a sense of presence" (Dengel & Mägdefrau, 2018).

          • Dengel, A., & Mägdefrau, J. (2018). Immersive learning explored: Subjective and objective factors influencing learning outcomes in immersive educational virtual environments. In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 608–615). IEEE. doi
          • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
          • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
          Implementation

          The stage at which a decided policy is carried out. Implementation research treats it as the main source of variation in what a policy achieves, rather than as an administrative afterthought (McLaughlin, 1987; Honig, 2006).

          • Pressman, J. L., & Wildavsky, A. (1973). Implementation: How great expectations in Washington are dashed in Oakland. University of California Press. archive.org
          • McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi
          • Honig, M. I. (Ed.). (2006). New directions in education policy implementation: Confronting complexity. State University of New York Press. doi
          Implementation drivers

          The supports that make new practice usable: selection, training, coaching, performance assessment, data systems, facilitative administration and systems intervention. Fixsen et al. (2005) call them core implementation components and note that they compensate for one another.

          • Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI Publication No. 231). University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. fpg.unc.edu
          • Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development (3rd ed.). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
          Implementation fidelity

          The extent to which a programme was delivered as designed. Durlak and DuPre (2008) found that the level of implementation strongly affects outcomes, which is why a null result can mean the programme was never run.

          • Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. doi
          Implementation gap

          The distance between what a policy states and what is actually delivered. Naming it is useful; treating it as pure failure is not, because some of the distance is the legitimate adaptation a policy needs to work anywhere in particular.

          • McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi
          • Pressman, J. L., & Wildavsky, A. (1973). Implementation: How great expectations in Washington are dashed in Oakland. University of California Press. archive.org
          Implementation monitoring

          Finding out what is actually being taught, by observation, teacher report, work samples or materials audits, rather than counting distribution or attendance.

          • O'Donnell, C. L. (2008). Defining, conceptualizing, and measuring fidelity of implementation and its relationship to outcomes in K–12 curriculum intervention research. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 33–84. doi
          • Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. doi
          • Fullan, M., & Pomfret, A. (1977). Research on curriculum and instruction implementation. Review of Educational Research, 47(2), 335–397. doi
          Implementation science

          The study of what it takes to put an evidence-based practice into routine use, and of why the same programme produces different results in different places (Fixsen et al., 2005; Durlak & DuPre, 2008).

          • Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI Publication No. 231). University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. fpg.unc.edu
          • Durlak, J. A., & DuPre, E. P. (2008). Implementation matters: A review of research on the influence of implementation on program outcomes and the factors affecting implementation. American Journal of Community Psychology, 41(3–4), 327–350. doi
          • National Implementation Research Network. (2015). Implementation stages overview. Active Implementation Hub, FPG Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. implementation.fpg.unc.edu
          Implementation stages

          The stages a change passes through: exploration, installation, initial implementation and full implementation. They are not linear, and fully operationalising a practice can take two to four years (National Implementation Research Network, 2015).

          • Fixsen, D. L., Naoom, S. F., Blase, K. A., Friedman, R. M., & Wallace, F. (2005). Implementation research: A synthesis of the literature (FMHI Publication No. 231). University of South Florida, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute, National Implementation Research Network. fpg.unc.edu
          • National Implementation Research Network. (2015). Implementation stages overview. Active Implementation Hub, FPG Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. implementation.fpg.unc.edu
          Improvement science

          A discipline that treats variation between sites as the object of study, works in short cycles close to the practice, and measures the process as well as the outcome (Bryk et al., 2015).

          • Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A., & LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Harvard Education Press.
          • Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., & Grunow, A. (2011). Getting ideas into action: Building networked improvement communities in education. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Frontiers in sociology of education (pp. 127–162). Springer. doi
          • Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (n.d.). The six core principles of improvement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from carnegiefoundation.org
          Inclusion and integration

          Integration places students with disabilities in mainstream settings and expects them to adjust. Inclusion changes content, teaching, structures and strategies so that all students can learn together (Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2016).

          • Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. (2016). General comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education (CRPD/C/GC/4). United Nations. docs.un.org
          • UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. european-agency.org
          • Booth, T., & Ainscow, M. (2011). Index for inclusion: Developing learning and participation in schools (3rd ed.). Centre for Studies on Inclusive Education.
          Indexical hypothesis

          The hypothesis that young readers may not consistently index, or map, words to the objects the words represent, and so derive little meaning from the text (Glenberg et al., 2004).

          • Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004). Activity and imagined activity can enhance young children’s reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 424–436. doi
          • Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying perspective for psychology. WIREs Cognitive Science, 1(4), 586–596. doi
          Individual education plans

          A written plan for one student that sets out goals, the support to be given and how progress will be checked. Their form and legal status vary between systems.

            Indoor environmental quality

            The combined quality of the indoor conditions that affect people: thermal comfort, air quality, lighting and acoustics. It is the part of the built environment with the strongest evidence for direct effects on learning.

            • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
            • Wargocki, P., & Wyon, D. P. (2007). The effects of moderately raised classroom temperatures and classroom ventilation rate on the performance of schoolwork by children (RP-1257). HVAC&R Research, 13(2), 193–220. doi
            • Shield, B. M., & Dockrell, J. E. (2008). The effects of environmental and classroom noise on the academic attainments of primary school children. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 123(1), 133–144. doi
            Inducements

            A policy instrument defined as "the transfer of money to individuals or agencies in return for certain actions" (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987b). It assumes the capacity to act already exists and the effort or attention is missing.

            • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
            • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987a). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152. doi
            • Muralidharan, K., & Sundararaman, V. (2011). Teacher performance pay: Experimental evidence from India. Journal of Political Economy, 119(1), 39–77. nber.org
            Initiative overload

            The condition of a school running more initiatives than it has attention for, so that each is implemented shallowly. Fullan and Quinn describe coherence as "so difficult to accomplish under conditions of overload, fragmentation and policy churn" (quoted in DeWitt, 2016).

            • Fullan, M., & Quinn, J. (2016). Coherence: The right drivers in action for schools, districts, and systems. Corwin.
            • Newmann, F. M., Smith, B., Allensworth, E., & Bryk, A. S. (2001). Instructional program coherence: What it is and why it should guide school improvement policy. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(4), 297–321. doi
            • DeWitt, P. (2016, January 24). It’s important to lead with coherence [Opinion]. Education Week. edweek.org
            Innovation

            A practice, product or arrangement that is new to the people adopting it, whether or not it is new in the world. Newness to the adopter is what creates the implementation problem.

            • Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th ed.). Free Press.
            • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
            Innovation fatigue

            The loss of energy and credibility that follows repeated cycles of announcement and abandonment. It is what makes the next good idea harder to introduce than the last one.

            • Farmer, S., Hudson, K., & Ward, C. (2026). Less is more: Leveraging the power of de-implementation to drive excellence in education (RTI Press Research Brief No. RB-0044-2603). RTI Press. doi
            Innovative learning environments

            In the ILETC project, the product of innovative space design and innovative teaching practice together (Mahat et al., 2018). The OECD (2017) uses the term for whole learning settings, not only buildings.

            • Mahat, M., Bradbeer, C., Byers, T., & Imms, W. (2018). Innovative learning environments and teacher change: Defining key concepts (Technical Report 3/2018). University of Melbourne, LEaRN. iletc.com.au
            • OECD. (2017). The OECD handbook for innovative learning environments. OECD Publishing. doi
            • Byers, T., Imms, W., & Hartnell-Young, E. (2018). Comparative analysis of the impact of traditional versus innovative learning environment on student attitudes and learning outcomes. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 58, 167–177. doi
            Inquiry-based learning

            Learning organised around questions and investigations, in which students gather and interpret evidence. It ranges from highly guided to open. Its effects depend strongly on guidance (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016).

            • Lazonder, A. W., & Harmsen, R. (2016). Meta-analysis of inquiry-based learning: Effects of guidance. Review of Educational Research, 86(3), 681–718. doi
            • Furtak, E. M., Seidel, T., Iverson, H., & Briggs, D. C. (2012). Experimental and quasi-experimental studies of inquiry-based science teaching: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 82(3), 300–329. doi
            • Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. doi
            Inspection

            Evaluation of a school by external visitors who observe and judge, rather than by scores alone. In England, a fail rating raised subsequent primary test scores with no sign of score inflation, while a high rating changed nothing measurable (Hussain, 2015).

            • Hussain, I. (2015). Subjective performance evaluation in the public sector: Evidence from school inspections. Journal of Human Resources, 50(1), 189–221. doi
            • de Wolf, I. F., & Janssens, F. J. G. (2007). Effects and side effects of inspections and accountability in education: An overview of empirical studies. Oxford Review of Education, 33(3), 379–396. doi
            • Ehren, M. C. M., Gustafsson, J.-E., Altrichter, H., Skedsmo, G., Kemethofer, D., & Huber, S. G. (2015). Comparing effects and side effects of different school inspection systems across Europe. Comparative Education, 51(3), 375–400. doi
            Instructional leadership

            Leadership exercised through the core work of teaching. Hallinger's (2003) model has three dimensions: defining the school's mission, managing the instructional programme, and promoting a positive school-learning climate.

            • Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading educational change: Reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329–352. doi
            • Robinson, V. M. J., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(5), 635–674. doi
            • Robinson, V. M. J. (2011). Student-centered leadership. Jossey-Bass.
            Intended curriculum

            What official documents ask for: goals, standards and syllabuses set by national or regional authorities (Bakan Kalaycioglu et al., 2026).

            • Bakan Kalaycioglu, D., Reynolds, K. A., Fishbein, B., Gonzalez, E., & von Davier, M. (2026). Intended, implemented, and attained mathematics and science curricula at the eighth grade: Findings from TIMSS 2023. Boston College, TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. doi
            • Goodlad, J. I., & Associates. (1979). Curriculum inquiry: The study of curriculum practice. McGraw-Hill.
            Inter-rater reliability

            The degree to which independent markers reach the same judgement on the same work. Ofqual (2018) reports a related index: the probability that a candidate receives the definitive grade.

            • Ofqual. (2018). Marking consistency metrics: An update (Ofqual/18/6449/2). Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
            • Koretz, D., Stecher, B., Klein, S., & McCaffrey, D. (1994). The Vermont portfolio assessment program: Findings and implications. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 13(3), 5–16. doi
            Interactional view of disability

            The view that disadvantage comes from the meeting of impairment and environment, so both the person and the setting can be targets for help (Wasserman & Aas, 2022).

            • Shakespeare, T. (2006). Disability rights and wrongs. Routledge. doi
            • Wasserman, D., & Aas, S. (2022). Disability: Definitions and models. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. plato.stanford.edu
            Interactive whiteboards

            Large touch-sensitive displays connected to a computer and projector, bought widely by UK schools in the 2000s (Moss et al., 2007).

            • Moss, G., Jewitt, C., Levačić, R., Armstrong, V., Cardini, A., & Castle, F. (2007). The interactive whiteboards, pedagogy and pupil performance evaluation: An evaluation of the Schools Whiteboard Expansion (SWE) project: London Challenge (Research Report RR816). Department for Education and Skills. discovery.ucl.ac.uk
            Interconnected model of professional growth

            A model of teacher growth with four domains: external information and support, personal knowledge and beliefs, practice, and consequence. Change moves between them through enactment and reflection, along many pathways (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002).

            • Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947–967. doi
            Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary learning

            Interdisciplinary work brings two or more subjects to bear on a question while keeping their methods distinct; transdisciplinary work starts from a real problem and draws on whatever the problem needs. Both raise the question of where disciplinary rigour is maintained.

            • Young, M. (2013). Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: A knowledge-based approach. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 45(2), 101–118. doi
            • Klein, J. T. (1990). Interdisciplinarity: History, theory, and practice. Wayne State University Press. doi
            International large-scale assessment (ILSA)

            A survey that measures the skills of a defined population across many systems on a common scale, using sampled students and sampled test items. PISA, TIMSS, PIRLS, ICILS and PIAAC are ILSAs; TALIS is a questionnaire study rather than a test.

            • Goldstein, H. (2004). International comparisons of student attainment: Some issues arising from the PISA study. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 319–330. doi
            • OECD. (2023a). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
            Interpretivism

            The position that social reality is constituted by the meanings people make, so research should recover those meanings rather than reduce them to variables.

            • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
            • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
            Intersectionality

            The observation that disadvantages combine rather than add, so the experience of a group defined by two or more characteristics is not the sum of the separate effects. It matters for analysis: averages by one characteristic can hide the group carrying most of the cost.

            • Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1989(1), 139–167.
            • Crenshaw, K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299. doi
            Intraclass correlation

            A summary of how far outcomes within a class or school are correlated, which determines how many clusters a trial needs. For school achievement it is typically around 0.2 (Hedges & Hedberg, 2007).

            • Hedges, L. V., & Hedberg, E. C. (2007). Intraclass correlation values for planning group-randomized trials in education. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 29(1), 60–87. doi
            • Hedberg, E. C., & Hedges, L. V. (2013). Intraclass correlations and covariate outcome correlations for planning two- and three-level cluster-randomized experiments in education [Conference paper]. Federal Committee on Statistical Methodology Research Conference. nces.ed.gov
            Ipsative assessment

            Judging work against the same learner’s previous performance rather than against criteria or other learners: a personal best. Hughes (2011) distinguishes ipsative feedback, which fits inside current practice, from ipsative grading, which does not.

            • Hughes, G. (2011). Towards a personal best: A case for introducing ipsative assessment in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 36(3), 353–367. doi
            • Hughes, G. (2014). Ipsative assessment: Motivation through marking progress. Palgrave Macmillan. doi
            Ipsative referencing

            Comparing a student's performance with their own earlier performance rather than with others or a standard. Its home in this series is Formative assessment and feedback (C13).

            • Hughes, G. (2011). Towards a personal best: A case for introducing ipsative assessment in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 36(3), 353–367. doi
            Item banks

            A calibrated collection of items "from which a test or test scale's items are selected" (AERA et al., 2014). Banks make multiple forms and adaptive delivery possible, and make exposure and security a standing concern.

            • Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Danmarks Paedagogiske Institut. archive.org
            • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
            • Yamamoto, K., Shin, H. J., & Khorramdel, L. (2018). Multistage adaptive testing design in international large-scale assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(4), 16–27. doi
            Item response theory

            A model of the relationship between an item, its properties and a person's standing on the construct, placing items and people on one scale, which makes item banking and adaptive testing possible (Rasch, 1960).

            • Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Danmarks Paedagogiske Institut. archive.org
            • Yamamoto, K., Shin, H. J., & Khorramdel, L. (2018). Multistage adaptive testing design in international large-scale assessments. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 37(4), 16–27. doi
            K
            Key personnel

            The named middle posts between school leaders and teachers. In Singapore these include heads of department, school staff developers, year heads and lead teachers (Ministry of Education, 2024). Other systems use different titles for a similar layer.

            • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, May 7). Mitigating disruptions and ensuring equity for senior education personnel rotations in schools [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
            • Academy of Singapore Teachers. (n.d.-a). School Staff Developer (SSD) Network. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from academyofsingaporeteachers.moe.edu.sg
            Kirkpatrick's four levels

            A level model used for courses, training and edtech that runs from reaction to learning to behaviour to results: a useful ladder and a dangerous shortcut (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006).

            • Kirkpatrick, D. L., & Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2006). Evaluating training programs: The four levels (3rd ed.). Berrett-Koehler.
            • Alliger, G. M., Tannenbaum, S. I., Bennett, W., Jr., Traver, H., & Shotland, A. (1997). A meta-analysis of the relations among training criteria. Personnel Psychology, 50(2), 341–358. doi
            • Bates, R. (2004). A critical analysis of evaluation practice: The Kirkpatrick model and the principle of beneficence. Evaluation and Program Planning, 27(3), 341–347. doi
            Knowledge base for teaching

            Shulman's seven kinds of teacher knowledge: content, general pedagogy, curriculum, pedagogical content knowledge, learners, educational contexts, and educational ends, purposes and values (Shulman, 1987).

            • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi
            • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
            • Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. doi
            Knowledge-rich curriculum

            A curriculum that specifies substantive content in detail and treats knowledge as the thing to be taught, on the argument that skills depend on what one knows.

            • Young, M. (2013). Overcoming the crisis in curriculum theory: A knowledge-based approach. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 45(2), 101–118. doi
            • Young, M. (2008). Bringing knowledge back in: From social constructivism to social realism in the sociology of education. Routledge. doi
            • Rotherham, A. J., & Willingham, D. (2009). 21st century skills: The challenges ahead. Educational Leadership, 67(1), 16–21. ascd.org
            Kotter's eight-step change model

            A popular change model that "appears to derive its popularity more from its direct and usable format than from any scientific consensus on the results"; best used as organised experience (Appelbaum et al., 2012).

            • Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading change. Harvard Business School Press.
            • Appelbaum, S. H., Habashy, S., Malo, J.-L., & Shafiq, H. (2012). Back to the future: Revisiting Kotter’s 1996 change model. Journal of Management Development, 31(8), 764–782. doi
            L
            Labaree's three goals of schooling

            Democratic equality (preparing citizens), social efficiency (training workers) and social mobility (preparing individuals to compete for social positions); the first two treat education as a public good, the third as a private one (Labaree, 1997).

            • Labaree, D. F. (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal, 34(1), 39–81. doi
            Law of Amplification

            Toyama's argument that technology helps education where it is already doing well, does little for mediocre systems and can cause outright harm in dysfunctional schools; it magnifies existing strengths and gaps (Toyama, 2015b).

            • Toyama, K. (2015a). Geek heresy: Rescuing social change from the cult of technology. PublicAffairs.
            • Toyama, K. (2015b, May 19). Why technology will never fix education. The Chronicle of Higher Education. chronicle.com
            • OECD. (2015). Students, computers and learning: Making the connection. PISA, OECD Publishing. doi
            Learner agency

            A learner's capacity to set goals, act and take responsibility for their learning. The OECD (2019) notes that it does not mean simple autonomy or choice. Primer C03 covers it in depth.

            C03 The capacity of learners to set goals, reflect and act to shape their own learning. The OECD (2019) defines student agency as "the capacity to set a goal, reflect and act responsibly to effect change".

            • OECD. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030 [Concept note, OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030]. oecd.org
            • OECD. (2019). Student agency for 2030 [OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 concept note]. oecd.org
            • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi
            Learner self-direction

            Learners taking responsibility for what, when and how they learn, especially beyond school. See C16, Beyond school: early years to lifelong learning.

            • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi
            Learner-centred and teacher-centred

            Labels for where control and activity sit in a lesson. Alexander (2004) calls the opposition between them one of several dichotomies that are "unnecessary and unhelpful"; a lesson can be teacher-led and still demand a great deal of thinking from learners.

            • Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(1), 7–33. doi
            • Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. Kappa Delta Pi; Macmillan.
            • King, A. (1993). From sage on the stage to guide on the side. College Teaching, 41(1), 30–35. doi
            Learnification

            Biesta's name for the drift in which describing students only as users or learners hides the question of who they are becoming (Biesta, 2015).

            • Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75–87. doi
            • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
            Learning commons and informal spaces

            Shared spaces, often in libraries, where students study, meet and work with technology outside timetabled classes. Oblinger (2006) describes many examples in higher education.

            Learning contracts

            A written agreement between learner and educator setting out what will be learned, by what means and how it will be assessed. Associated with Knowles and carried into heutagogical practice, where the learner writes more of it.

            • Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Prentice Hall/Cambridge.
            • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
            Learning ecosystems

            A way of describing the whole set of places a person can learn — institutions, employers, platforms, libraries, communities — and the connections between them. Useful as a framing; rarely operationalised well enough to be measured.

            C24 A way of describing provision as a connected set of settings — schools, families, workplaces, libraries, online communities — rather than as one institution. The OECD’s “schools as learning hubs” scenario is one version of it.

            • OECD. (2019). Getting skills right: Future-ready adult learning systems. OECD Publishing. doi
            • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
            • OECD. (2001). What schools for the future? OECD Publishing. doi
            Learning intentions

            A statement of what students are meant to learn from a task, written for the students rather than for an observer, and separate from the activity they will do.

            • Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. (2008). Integrating assessment with learning: What will it take to make it work? In C. A. Dwyer (Ed.), The future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning (pp. 53–82). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi
            • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
            Learning loss

            A shortfall in expected progress over a period, measured against a comparable earlier cohort. Engzell et al. (2021) estimated about a fifth of a school year during an eight-week Dutch closure, with losses up to 60% larger among students from less-educated homes.

            • Engzell, P., Frey, A., & Verhagen, M. D. (2021). Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(17), e2022376118. doi
            Learning objectives

            Statements of what teaching intends students to learn, usually written for a lesson or unit and phrased as what students will know or be able to do.

            • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
            • Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Longman.
            • Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(4), 212–218. doi
            Learning outcomes

            Statements of what a student should be able to demonstrate at the end of a course, unit or key stage. Outcomes face the assessment; objectives face the teaching.

            • Biggs, J. B., & Collis, K. F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy (structure of the observed learning outcome). Academic Press.
            • Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher Education, 32(3), 347–364. doi
            • Korkmaz, F., & Ünsal, S. (2017). Analysis of attainments and evaluation questions in sociology curriculum according to the SOLO taxonomy. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 69, 75–92. doi
            Learning progressions

            "Descriptions of the successively more sophisticated ways of thinking about a topic that can follow one another as children learn about and investigate a topic over a broad span of time (e.g., 6 to 8 years)" (National Research Council, 2007). Corcoran et al. (2009) treat them as testable hypotheses.

            C13 Research-based descriptions of the order in which understanding of a topic typically develops, used to place a learner and choose the next step. Primer C10 covers them.

            • National Research Council. (2007). Taking science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K–8. National Academies Press. doi
            • Corcoran, T., Mosher, F. A., & Rogat, A. (2009). Learning progressions in science: An evidence-based approach to reform (CPRE Research Report No. RR-63). Consortium for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
            Learning space design

            The practice of planning physical and virtual spaces around the learning they are meant to support. Oblinger (2006) presents it from the side of teachers, technologists and librarians, not only architects.

            • Oblinger, D. G. (Ed.). (2006). Learning spaces. EDUCAUSE. educause.edu
            • OECD. (2017). The OECD handbook for innovative learning environments. OECD Publishing. doi
            Learning support

            Help beyond core classroom teaching for students who need it, often in small groups or one to one, and often in literacy, numeracy or behaviour. In tiered systems it corresponds to Tier 2 or Tier 3.

            • Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. doi
            • Balu, R., Zhu, P., Doolittle, F., Schiller, E., Jenkins, J., & Gersten, R. (2015). Evaluation of response to intervention practices for elementary school reading (NCEE 2016-4000). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. ies.ed.gov
            Learning trajectories

            The mathematics education term for the same idea: a goal, a developmental path children take towards it, and activities matched to each level on that path (Clements & Sarama, 2004).

            • Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2004). Learning trajectories in mathematics education. Mathematical Thinking and Learning, 6(2), 81–89. doi
            • Simon, M. A. (1995). Reconstructing mathematics pedagogy from a constructivist perspective. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26(2), 114–145. doi
            Legitimate peripheral participation

            Learning as taking part in a community of practice: the newcomer takes on real but bounded work and moves inward as competence grows, a description of apprenticeship generalised (Lave & Wenger, 1991).

            • Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. doi
            Lesson flow and interruptions

            The momentum of a lesson from one activity to the next, and the events that break it: announcements, late arrivals, technical faults, visitors. Kounin (1970) treated smoothness and momentum as core management skills.

            • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
            • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
            • Arlin, M. (1979). Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 16(1), 42–56. doi
            Lesson planning

            Preparing the aims, activities, materials and checks for a lesson. TALIS 2024 found Singapore lower secondary teachers spend 8.2 hours a week preparing lessons (OECD, 2025).

            • OECD. (2025). Results from TALIS 2024: Singapore [Country note]. OECD Publishing. oecd.org
            • Clark, C. M., & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers’ thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 255–296). Macmillan.
            Lesson study

            A Japanese form of teacher-led inquiry in which a team studies materials, plans a research lesson together, observes it live and refines it. Evidence outside Japan is mixed, and what travels badly is usually the detail of the process (Fujii, 2014).

            • Fujii, T. (2014). Implementing Japanese lesson study in foreign countries: Misconceptions revealed. Mathematics Teacher Education and Development, 16(1). eric.ed.gov
            • Chokshi, S., & Fernandez, C. (2004). Challenges to importing Japanese lesson study: Concerns, misconceptions, and nuances. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(7), 520–525. doi
            • Lewis, C., & Perry, R. (2017). Lesson study to scale up research-based knowledge: A randomized, controlled trial of fractions learning. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 48(3), 261–299. doi
            Levels of curriculum (Goodlad)

            Goodlad’s finer set of five levels on which a curriculum occurs: the ideological, formal, perceived, operational and experiential. The perceived level is what teachers and parents believe the curriculum requires (Goodlad & Associates, 1979).

            • Goodlad, J. I., & Associates. (1979). Curriculum inquiry: The study of curriculum practice. McGraw-Hill.
            • Ramulumo, M., & Mnguni, L. (2023). A qualitative comparison of the intended curriculum ideologies of STEM subjects in South Africa. Curriculum Perspectives, 43(2), 145–155. doi
            Levels of feedback

            Hattie and Timperley’s (2007) four levels: the task, the process used, the learner’s self-regulation, and the self. The first three carry information; the fourth usually does not.

            • Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. doi
            • Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284. doi
            • Wisniewski, B., Zierer, K., & Hattie, J. (2020). The power of feedback revisited: A meta-analysis of educational feedback research. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, Article 3087. doi
            Levels of use

            The second CBAM instrument: eight behavioural profiles from nonuse and orientation through preparation, mechanical use and routine use to refinement, integration and renewal (SEDL, n.d.-b).

            • Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2019). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes (5th ed.). Pearson.
            • SEDL. (n.d.-b). Levels of Use, a dimension of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from sedl.org
            Liberal education

            Education valued for developing the mind and preparing a person for a free life, rather than for a particular job. In analytic philosophy it is often described as initiation into forms of knowledge (Curren, 2025).

            • Curren, R. (2025). Philosophy of education. In E. N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. plato.stanford.edu
            • Peters, R. S. (1966). Ethics and education. George Allen & Unwin.
            Life cycle of a learning space

            Four phases of a space: design; implementation and transition; consolidation; and sustainability or re-evaluation, with most research in the design phase and little linking any phase to learning outcomes (Blackmore et al., 2011).

            • Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. education.vic.gov.au
            Lifelong learning societies

            Societies organised so that learning continues across the whole life course, with funding, time and recognition to match. Ageing populations make this a practical question rather than a slogan. Primer C16 covers it.

            • National Population and Talent Division. (2025). Population in brief 2025. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. population.gov.sg
            • International Commission on the Futures of Education. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO. doi
            Lighthouse and pilot schools

            Schools chosen to run a change first, either to test it (pilot) or to demonstrate it to others (lighthouse). Both give better-than-average conditions, which is what makes them useful for learning and misleading for forecasting.

            • Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547–588. doi
            • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2019, September 3). One secondary education, many subject bands: 28 secondary schools to pilot Full Subject-Based Banding [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
            Lighting and daylight

            The amount, quality and control of natural and artificial light in a room. Light is one of the naturalness parameters in the HEAD study (Barrett et al., 2015a).

            • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
            • Barrett, P. S., Zhang, Y., Davies, F., & Barrett, L. C. (2015b). Clever classrooms: Summary report of the HEAD project. University of Salford. usir.salford.ac.uk
            Literacy

            The capacity to read, write and use language for the purposes a society expects. This primer treats it as both a gateway skill and something each subject reshapes.

            • Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–59. doi
            • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
            • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
            Logic model

            A diagram of a programme as a chain: resources, activities, outputs, immediate outcomes, intermediate outcomes and ultimate outcomes (Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, 2021). It lists the boxes but does not explain the arrows.

            • Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. (2021, March 22). Theory-based approaches to evaluation: Concepts and practices. Government of Canada. canada.ca
            • W. K. Kellogg Foundation. (2004). Logic model development guide. W. K. Kellogg Foundation.
            Logo and constructionism

            Logo is a programming language for children from the late 1960s. Constructionism, Papert's theory, holds that people learn best by building things in the world (MIT News, 2016; Papert, 1980).

            • Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. Basic Books.
            • MIT News. (2016, August 1). Seymour Papert, pioneer of constructionist learning, dies at 88. news.mit.edu
            Loosely coupled systems

            Weick's (1976) description of organisations whose parts are "responsive, but that each event also preserves its own identity and some evidence of its physical or logical separateness". Schools are the standard example.

            • Weick, K. E. (1976). Educational organizations as loosely coupled systems. Administrative Science Quarterly, 21(1), 1–19. doi
            • Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977). Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340–363. doi
            Low-stakes quizzing

            Frequent questioning that carries little or no weight in a grade. It can serve learning through retrieval, or serve teaching through evidence, or neither if nothing follows from the results.

            • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. doi
            • Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255. doi
            M
            Mandates

            A policy instrument defined as "rules governing the action of individuals and agencies, intended to produce compliance" (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987b). It assumes everyone could comply if required, regardless of their differing capacities.

            • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
            • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987a). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152. doi
            • McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi
            Manipulatives

            Physical objects, such as blocks, rods or fraction tiles, used to represent mathematical ideas. Their benefit depends on how instruction links them to the idea (Carbonneau et al., 2013).

            • Carbonneau, K. J., Marley, S. C., & Selig, J. P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of teaching mathematics with concrete manipulatives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 380–400. doi
            • Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004). Activity and imagined activity can enhance young children’s reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 424–436. doi
            Marking workload

            The time written marking takes, and what it displaces. In the United Kingdom’s 2014 Workload Challenge survey, reforming marking policy was the highest workload-related priority for 53% of respondents (Elliott et al., 2016).

            • Elliott, V., Baird, J.-A., Hopfenbeck, T. N., Ingram, J., Thompson, I., Usher, N., Zantout, M., Richardson, J., & Coleman, R. (2016). A marked improvement? A review of the evidence on written marking. Education Endowment Foundation. educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
            • Education Endowment Foundation. (2021). Teacher feedback to improve pupil learning [Guidance report]. educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
            Maryland Scientific Methods Scale

            A scale written for crime prevention and widely borrowed, grading designs from level 1, correlation at a single point in time, to level 5, random assignment. It covers internal validity only (Sherman et al., 1998).

            • Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D. C., MacKenzie, D. L., Eck, J., Reuter, P., & Bushway, S. D. (1998). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s promising. National Institute of Justice. files.eric.ed.gov
            Marzano’s New Taxonomy

            A taxonomy of three systems, self, metacognitive and cognitive, acting on three knowledge domains: information, mental procedures and psychomotor procedures. It captures motivation and self-regulation that the others leave out (Marzano & Kendall, 2007).

            • Marzano, R. J., & Kendall, J. S. (2007). The new taxonomy of educational objectives (2nd ed.). Corwin Press.
            • Irvine, J. (2020). Marzano’s new taxonomy as a framework for investigating student affect. Journal of Instructional Pedagogies, 24. files.eric.ed.gov
            Massification

            The shift of higher education from an elite sector to a majority destination; the world gross tertiary enrolment ratio roughly doubled between 2000 and 2024, changing the institution, not only its size (World Bank, 2026).

            • World Bank. (2026). School enrollment, tertiary (% gross), World [Data set, indicator SE.TER.ENRR; source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics]. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from data.worldbank.org
            • Trow, M. (1973). Problems in the transition from elite to mass higher education. Carnegie Commission on Higher Education.
            Mastery learning

            An approach in which students take formative tests, receive corrective help and move on only once they have mastered a unit (Bloom, 1984). Meta-analyses find moderate positive effects, smaller on standardised tests (Kulik et al., 1990).

            • Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6), 4–16. doi
            • Kulik, C.-L. C., Kulik, J. A., & Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 60(2), 265–299. doi
            • Slavin, R. E. (1987). Mastery learning reconsidered. Review of Educational Research, 57(2), 175–213. doi
            Mathematical knowledge for teaching

            The specialised content knowledge that teaching mathematics requires. First and third grade teachers' scores on it were significantly related to their students' achievement gains (Hill et al., 2005).

            • Hill, H. C., Rowan, B., & Ball, D. L. (2005). Effects of teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching on student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 42(2), 371–406. doi
            • Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H., & Phelps, G. (2008). Content knowledge for teaching: What makes it special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59(5), 389–407. doi
            Mathematics framework (SG)

            Singapore’s curriculum framework with mathematical problem solving as its primary focus, drawn as a pentagon of five inter-related components: concepts, skills, processes, attitudes and metacognition. It has held its shape since 1990 (Kaur, 2014).

            • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
            • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Primary school curriculum: Syllabus. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
            Mathematics Imagery Trainer

            An embodied design for proportion in which a screen turns green only when a student's two hands are held at a set ratio of heights, such as 1:2 (Abrahamson & Lindgren, 2022).

            • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
            Matrix sampling

            Splitting the item pool so that "each student saw only a small subset of the test material and was thus assessed on only a selection of the skills and competencies that comprise each domain" (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). It lets a study cover a wide domain without a long test.

            • National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). PISA 2022: Technical notes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from nces.ed.gov
            Matthew effects

            Early advantage compounding into later advantage, named after the gospel line about those who have being given more. Stanovich (1986) showed the pattern in reading, where reading more makes reading easier, which produces "rich-get-richer and poor-get-poorer patterns of reading achievement".

            • Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21(4), 360–407. doi
            • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press.
            Measurement error

            The difference between the score observed and the score a perfect measurement would give. Classical test theory treats an observed score as a true score plus independent random error (AERA et al., 2014).

            • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
            • Wiliam, D. (2001). Reliability, validity, and all that jazz. Education 3–13, 29(3), 17–21. discovery.ucl.ac.uk
            • He, Q., Hayes, M., & Wiliam, D. (2011). Classification accuracy in results from Key Stage 2 National Curriculum tests (Ofqual/11/4830). Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
            Media-comparison studies

            Studies that compare the same content delivered through different media. Critics argue they confound the medium with the method (Clark, 1994; Kozma, 1994).

            • Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21–29. doi
            • Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7–19. doi
            Medical and social models of disability

            The medical, or individual, model locates the problem of disability in the person. The social model locates it in barriers created by society (Oliver, 1990). Critics argue strong versions of the social model understate impairment (Wasserman & Aas, 2022).

            • Oliver, M. (1990, July 23). The individual and social models of disability [Paper presentation]. Joint Workshop of the Living Options Group and the Research Unit of the Royal College of Physicians, Thames Polytechnic, United Kingdom. disability-studies.leeds.ac.uk
            • Shakespeare, T. (2006). Disability rights and wrongs. Routledge. doi
            • Wasserman, D., & Aas, S. (2022). Disability: Definitions and models. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy. plato.stanford.edu
            Megatrends

            Large, slow forces that shape many domains at once, such as ageing, urbanisation or digitalisation. They are the background against which weak signals are read.

            • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
            • United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. (2024). World population prospects 2024: Summary of results (UN DESA/POP/2024/TR/NO. 9). population.un.org
            Mental rotation

            Imagining an object turning in order to compare it with another. It is the classic test of intrinsic, dynamic spatial skill (Yang et al., 2020).

            • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
            • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
            • Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. doi
            Merit and worth

            Merit is how good something is in itself; worth is how valuable it is to a particular set of people in meeting their needs. Stufflebeam (2007) adds probity, meaning integrity and honesty, and significance, meaning importance beyond its own setting.

            • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2007). CIPP evaluation model checklist (2nd ed.). The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
            • Scriven, M. (1991b). Evaluation thesaurus (4th ed.). Sage.
            • Davidson, E. J. (2005). Evaluation methodology basics: The nuts and bolts of sound evaluation. Sage.
            Meritocracy

            Allocating positions by measured ability and effort rather than by birth or connection. Its critics argue that measured ability is itself unequally produced, so the system can convert inherited advantage into apparently earned standing.

            • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. marxists.org
            • Young, M. (1958). The rise of the meritocracy, 1870–2033: An essay on education and equality. Thames and Hudson.
            Meta-analysis

            A statistical synthesis that pools effect sizes across studies. It buys precision only if the studies are estimating something comparable; otherwise it produces a precise number for a quantity that does not exist.

            • Slavin, R. E. (2008). Perspectives on evidence-based research in education—What works? Issues in synthesizing educational program evaluations. Educational Researcher, 37(1), 5–14. doi
            • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
            • Simpson, A. (2017). The misdirection of public policy: Comparing and combining standardised effect sizes. Journal of Education Policy, 32(4), 450–466. doi
            Meta-evaluation

            Evaluation of an evaluation, against professional standards. The Program Evaluation Standards devote a whole category to it, and Stufflebeam (2001) argued that it is an obligation rather than an extra.

            • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2001). The metaevaluation imperative. American Journal of Evaluation, 22(2), 183–209. doi
            • Yarbrough, D. B., Shulha, L. M., Hopson, R. K., & Caruthers, F. A. (2011). The program evaluation standards: A guide for evaluators and evaluation users (3rd ed.). Sage.
            • Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (2018). Checklist of the program evaluation standards statements. files.wmich.edu
            Metacognition

            Thinking about one's own thinking: planning, monitoring and evaluating how one learns. See the Designing for Learning primer.

            • Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive–developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906–911. doi
            Metaverse

            "A perpetual and persistent multiuser environment merging physical reality with digital virtuality", built on VR and AR (Mystakidis, 2022). The term is used loosely and often promotionally.

            • Mystakidis, S. (2022). Metaverse. Encyclopedia, 2(1), 486–497. doi
            Micro-credentials

            Short certified units of learning, often designed to stack toward a larger qualification. The OECD (2023) describes them as envisioned as “a sort of all-purpose solution” while noting that “evidence on the value and impact of micro-credentials remains scarce”.

            • OECD. (2023). Micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability: Uses and possibilities (OECD Education Policy Perspectives). OECD Publishing. doi
            Middle leaders

            Staff who lead a team while still teaching: heads of department, subject heads, year heads, phase leaders. Reviews describe them as bridges between organisational levels whose roles are defined locally and studied surprisingly little (Lipscombe et al., 2021, 2025).

            • Lipscombe, K., Tindall-Ford, S., & Lamanna, J. (2021). School middle leadership: A systematic review. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 51(2), 270–288. doi
            • Lipscombe, K., Harris, J., Tindall-Ford, S., & Groth, S. (2025). School middle leadership: A systematic review revisited 2020–2024. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. Advance online publication. doi
            • Leithwood, K. (2016). Department-head leadership for school improvement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 15(2), 117–140. doi
            Mini whiteboards

            Small boards on which every student writes an answer and shows it at once, so that the teacher sees the whole class rather than the volunteers. One of several all-student response methods.

            • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
            • Wiliam, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Solution Tree Press.
            Misconceptions and conceptual change

            Prior explanations that conflict with accepted ones, and the process of replacing them. Posner et al. (1982) set four conditions: dissatisfaction, and a new conception that is intelligible, plausible and fruitful.

            • Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 211–227. doi
            • Pacaci, C., Ustun, U., & Ozdemir, O. F. (2024). Effectiveness of conceptual change strategies in science education: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 61(6), 1263–1325. doi
            • Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74. doi
            Mixed and extended reality (MR, XR)

            Mixed reality covers any display between fully real and fully virtual environments (Milgram & Kishino, 1994). Extended reality is a later umbrella term for VR, AR and MR together.

            • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
            • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
            Mixed attainment

            A class or group that includes students at different levels of attainment, taught together. Every class formed by age is mixed to some degree (Deunk et al., 2018).

            • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
            • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
            Mixed methods

            Combining qualitative and quantitative data in one study or programme. Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004) argue for it as a third methodological movement rather than a compromise between two camps.

            • Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26. doi
            • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
            Modelling

            Showing learners how to do something, often while thinking aloud, so that the steps and decisions of an expert become visible. It is the first stage of gradual release and one of Rosenshine's principles.

            • Pearson, P. D., & Gallagher, M. C. (1983). The instruction of reading comprehension. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 8(3), 317–344. doi
            • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
            Moderation

            Bringing different markers, tasks or cohorts onto a common scale, whether statistically or through meetings in which markers compare judgements against agreed examples. In the Standards it is "a process of relating scores on different tests so that scores have the same relative meaning".

            • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
            • Ofqual. (2020b). Grading GCSEs, AS and A levels in 2021 (Ofqual/20/6720/2). Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
            Moments of contingency

            Points in teaching where the next move depends on the evidence; formative assessment creates and capitalises on them, with regulation planned before the lesson, made during it or applied afterwards (Wiliam, 2014).

            • Wiliam, D. (2014, April). Formative assessment and contingency in the regulation of learning processes [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA, United States. fame-michigan.nyc3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com
            • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. doi
            MOOCs

            Massive open online courses: free or low-cost online courses open to anyone, widely launched by universities from 2012 (Hansen & Reich, 2015).

            • Hansen, J. D., & Reich, J. (2015). Democratizing education? Examining access and usage patterns in massive open online courses. Science, 350(6265), 1245–1248. doi
            • Reich, J., & Ruipérez-Valiente, J. A. (2019). The MOOC pivot. Science, 363(6423), 130–131. doi
            • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can't transform education. Harvard University Press.
            Mother Tongue Languages (SG)

            The second language Singapore students study alongside English. Studying a Mother Tongue Language is compulsory, with some exceptions (Ministry of Education, Singapore, n.d.-b).

            • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-b). Mother Tongue Languages. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
            • Sim, C. (2016). Bilingual policy. Singapore Infopedia, National Library Board. nlb.gov.sg
            Motivation (intrinsic and extrinsic)

            Intrinsic motivation is doing something because it is interesting or satisfying in itself. Extrinsic motivation is doing it for a separate outcome, such as a reward, approval or a goal the learner values (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

            • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi
            • Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. doi
            • Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129–137. doi
            Motor competence

            How well a person performs a range of movement skills. Stodden et al. (2008) treat it as a mechanism that drives later physical activity, fitness and perceived competence.

            • Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. doi
            • Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D’Hondt, E. (2015). Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Medicine, 45(9), 1273–1284. doi
            • Logan, S. W., Robinson, L. E., Wilson, A. E., & Lucas, W. A. (2012). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(3), 305–315. doi
            Motor development and body awareness

            The growth of control over movement and of the sense of where the body is in space. See C09, Embodied, spatial and immersive learning, and C12 on subject pedagogies, including physical education.

              Multi-tiered system of supports (MTSS)

              A system that applies the same layers of help to both academic and behavioural needs, a proactive and preventative framework that integrates data and instruction (Center on Multi-Tiered System of Supports, n.d.).

              • Center on Multi-Tiered System of Supports. (n.d.). Essential components of MTSS. American Institutes for Research. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mtss4success.org
              • Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. doi
              Multilingual learners

              Learners who use more than one language in their lives, including those still learning the language of instruction. The term treats their languages as a resource rather than a deficit.

              • García, O., & Li Wei. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan. doi
              • Prilutskaya, M. (2021). Examining pedagogical translanguaging: A systematic review of the literature. Languages, 6(4), Article 180. doi
              Multiple accountability

              The horizontal form in which schools involve "students, parents, communities and other stakeholders in formulating strategies, decision-making, and evaluation" (Hooge et al., 2012). It is the least developed of the four and the least studied.

              • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
              Multiple streams

              Kingdon's account of agenda setting as three largely independent streams (problems, policies and politics) which a policy entrepreneur joins while a window is open; a widely used framework, not a tested theory (Kingdon, 1995).

              • Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). HarperCollins.
              • Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(1), 1–25. doi
              Mutual adaptation

              McLaughlin's (1976) finding that a project and its setting each change the other during implementation, and that the versions which survive are the adapted ones.

              • McLaughlin, M. W. (1976). Implementation as mutual adaptation: Change in classroom organization. Teachers College Record, 77(3), 339–351. doi
              • McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi
              N
              National Digital Literacy Programme (SG)

              Singapore's programme under which every secondary student was to have a personal learning device by the end of 2021, with schools given autonomy over how to integrate it (Ministry of Education Singapore, 2020b).

              • Ministry of Education Singapore. (2020b, November 2). Personal learning device [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
              • Ministry of Education Singapore. (2020c, December 29). Blended learning to enhance schooling experience and further develop students into self-directed learners [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
              National examinations

              System-wide examinations that certify attainment and usually control progression, run by a public board. In Singapore these are set and administered by the Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board.

              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2016, July 13). Changes to PSLE scoring and Secondary One posting [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
              • Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board. (n.d.). Secondary Education Certificate (SEC). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from seab.gov.sg
              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). How will the current PSLE scoring system benefit your child? Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
              Natural experiment

              A comparison that a reform makes possible without anyone designing it: Wales abolished school performance tables while England kept them, which allowed a difference-in-differences comparison of two similar systems (Burgess et al., 2013).

              • Burgess, S., Wilson, D., & Worth, J. (2013). A natural experiment in school accountability: The impact of school performance information on pupil progress. Journal of Public Economics, 106, 57–67. doi
              Naturalness, individualisation and stimulation

              The three design principles of the HEAD study. Naturalness covers light, temperature and air quality; individualisation covers ownership and flexibility; stimulation covers complexity and colour, which work best at a moderate level (Barrett et al., 2015b). The 2015 journal paper calls the second principle individuality.

              • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
              • Barrett, P. S., Zhang, Y., Davies, F., & Barrett, L. C. (2015b). Clever classrooms: Summary report of the HEAD project. University of Salford. usir.salford.ac.uk
              • Barrett, P., Zhang, Y., Moffat, J., & Kobbacy, K. (2013). A holistic, multi-level analysis identifying the impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning. Building and Environment, 59, 678–689. doi
              Nature of science

              How scientific knowledge is generated, justified and revised: tentative, evidence-based, theory-laden and socially situated. It needs explicit teaching rather than absorption through practical work (Lederman et al., 2002).

              • Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497–521. doi
              • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary Three to Six (Implementation starting with 2023 Primary Three cohort; updated January 2026). moe.gov.sg
              Needs and environmental scans

              Structured looks outward before a review: what has changed in the discipline, the economy, technology, society and the student population.

              • Skilbeck, M. (1984). School-based curriculum development. Harper & Row. openlibrary.org
              • Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt, Brace & World.
              Needs assessment

              A study of what the people a programme serves actually need, which supplies the criteria against which worth is later judged. In the CIPP model this is context evaluation, asking "What needs to be done?" (Stufflebeam, 2007).

              • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2007). CIPP evaluation model checklist (2nd ed.). The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
              • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2003). The CIPP model for evaluation. In T. Kellaghan & D. L. Stufflebeam (Eds.), International handbook of educational evaluation (pp. 31–62). Springer. doi
              Networked improvement community

              A group of sites working on the same specific problem with shared measures, so that what one learns is usable by the others. Proposed as an alternative to the usual organisation of educational research (Bryk et al., 2011).

              • Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., & Grunow, A. (2011). Getting ideas into action: Building networked improvement communities in education. In M. T. Hallinan (Ed.), Frontiers in sociology of education (pp. 127–162). Springer. doi
              • Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A., & LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Harvard Education Press.
              • Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (n.d.). The six core principles of improvement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from carnegiefoundation.org
              Neurodiversity

              The idea that neurological differences, such as autism, ADHD and dyslexia, are part of natural human variation. The neurodiversity movement challenges the medical model's focus on cause and cure (Kapp et al., 2013).

              • Kapp, S. K., Gillespie-Lynch, K., Sherman, L. E., & Hutman, T. (2013). Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity. Developmental Psychology, 49(1), 59–71. doi
              • Silberman, S. (2015). NeuroTribes: The legacy of autism and the future of neurodiversity. Avery.
              Neuromyths

              Popular but false beliefs about the brain and learning, such as learning styles. See the False Certainties field guide.

              • Dekker, S., Lee, N. C., Howard-Jones, P., & Jolles, J. (2012). Neuromyths in education: Prevalence and predictors of misconceptions among teachers. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, Article 429. doi
              • Howard-Jones, P. A. (2014). Neuroscience and education: Myths and messages. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 15(12), 817–824. doi
              New Public Management

              The reform movement of the 1980s that brought targets, contracts, competition and explicit performance measurement into public services, named and critically examined by Hood (1991).

              • Hood, C. (1991). A public management for all seasons? Public Administration, 69(1), 3–19. doi
              • Bevan, G., & Hood, C. (2006). What’s measured is what matters: Targets and gaming in the English public health care system. Public Administration, 84(3), 517–538. doi
              New social contract for education

              UNESCO's call for an education "that can repair injustices while transforming the future", grounded in the right to education throughout life and education as a common good (International Commission on the Futures of Education, 2021).

              • International Commission on the Futures of Education. (2021). Reimagining our futures together: A new social contract for education. UNESCO. doi
              Norm-, criterion- and standards-referencing

              Three reference points. Norm-referenced results compare a student with a reference population; criterion-referenced results describe performance against a defined domain (Glaser, 1963); standards-referenced results place students into described levels using cut scores.

              • Glaser, R. (1963). Instructional technology and the measurement of learning outcomes: Some questions. American Psychologist, 18(8), 519–521. doi
              • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
              Normative validity

              Biesta's term for whether a measure captures what we value, as opposed to technical validity, whether it measures what it claims to measure (Biesta, 2009).

              • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
              • Biesta, G. (2010). Valuing what we measure or measuring what we value? On the need to engage with the question of purpose in educational evaluation, assessment and measurement. In W. Böttcher, J. N. Dicke, & N. Hogrebe (Eds.), Evaluation, Bildung und Gesellschaft: Steuerungsinstrumente zwischen Anspruch und Wirklichkeit (pp. 35–46). Waxmann. orbilu.uni.lu
              Null curriculum

              Eisner’s term for what schools never offer, and so never invite students to consider (Eisner, 1985, as cited in Flinders et al., 1986).

              • Eisner, E. W. (1985). The educational imagination: On the design and evaluation of school programs (2nd ed.). Macmillan.
              • Flinders, D. J., Noddings, N., & Thornton, S. J. (1986). The null curriculum: Its theoretical basis and practical implications. Curriculum Inquiry, 16(1), 33–42. doi
              Numeracy

              Confident, accurate use of number and measurement in everyday and subject contexts. Like literacy, it is a gateway to other subjects and is reshaped inside each of them.

              • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
              • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
              O
              Objectives model

              A model that states the intended changes in students, which makes evaluation straightforward and coverage checkable. The tradition runs from Tyler (1949) through Taba (1962), whose seven steps begin with diagnosis of needs.

              • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
              • Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt, Brace & World.
              • Smith, M. K. (2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. infed.org
              OECD evaluation criteria

              Six criteria for development evaluation: relevance, coherence, effectiveness, efficiency, impact and sustainability, which together "provide a normative framework used to determine the merit or worth" of an intervention (OECD, n.d.).

              • OECD. (n.d.). Evaluation criteria. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from oecd.org
              OECD Learning Compass 2030

              An OECD learning framework that sets out points of orientation towards individual and collective well-being; it is neither an assessment framework nor a curriculum framework (OECD, 2019).

              • OECD. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030 [Concept note, OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030]. oecd.org
              OECD scenarios for schooling

              Four alternative futures for 2040: schooling extended, education outsourced, schools as learning hubs, and learn-as-you-go. None is a prediction, and ranking them by probability wastes the exercise (OECD, 2020).

              • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
              • OECD. (2001). What schools for the future? OECD Publishing. doi
              One Laptop per Child

              A project announced in 2005 to give low-cost laptops to children in the Global South (Ames, 2019).

              • Ames, M. G. (2019). The charisma machine: The life, death, and legacy of One Laptop per Child. MIT Press. mitpress.mit.edu
              • Cristia, J., Ibarrarán, P., Cueto, S., Santiago, A., & Severín, E. (2017). Technology and child development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child program. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(3), 295–320. doi
              • Warschauer, M., & Ames, M. (2010). Can One Laptop per Child save the world's poor? Journal of International Affairs, 64(1), 33–51. jstor.org
              One-to-one computing

              A programme that gives each student a personal device, such as a laptop or tablet, for school and home.

              • Cristia, J., Ibarrarán, P., Cueto, S., Santiago, A., & Severín, E. (2017). Technology and child development: Evidence from the One Laptop per Child program. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 9(3), 295–320. doi
              • Warschauer, M., & Ames, M. (2010). Can One Laptop per Child save the world's poor? Journal of International Affairs, 64(1), 33–51. jstor.org
              Ongoing assessment

              In Teaching for Understanding, assessment that gives "criteria, feedback, and opportunities for reflection" throughout, revised as understanding grows (Perkins & Blythe, 1994).

              • Perkins, D., & Blythe, T. (1994). Putting understanding up front. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 4–7. ascd.org
              • Wiske, M. S. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. Jossey-Bass.
              Open-plan and modern learning environments

              Schools with few fixed classroom walls, where several groups share a larger space. The term modern learning environment is common in New Zealand. Noise and speech privacy are the recurring problems (Shield et al., 2010).

              • Shield, B., Greenland, E., & Dockrell, J. (2010). Noise in open plan classrooms in primary schools: A review. Noise and Health, 12(49), 225–234. doi
              • Dovey, K., & Fisher, K. (2014). Designing for adaptation: The school as socio-spatial assemblage. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), 43–63. doi
              Oracy

              Speaking and listening taught and assessed deliberately, rather than left to happen. Mercer et al. (2017) set out a framework for assessing it at age 11 to 12.

              • Mercer, N., Warwick, P., & Ahmed, A. (2017). An oracy assessment toolkit: Linking research and development in the assessment of students’ spoken language skills at age 11–12. Learning and Instruction, 48, 51–60. doi
              • Education Endowment Foundation. (2025b). Oral language interventions [Teaching and learning toolkit]. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
              Outcome and impact evaluation

              Outcome evaluation asks what changed among those the programme reached. Impact evaluation asks how much of that change would not have happened otherwise, which requires a credible comparison.

              • Skivington, K., Matthews, L., Simpson, S. A., Craig, P., Baird, J., Blazeby, J. M., Boyd, K. A., Craig, N., French, D. P., McIntosh, E., Petticrew, M., Rycroft-Malone, J., White, M., & Moore, L. (2021). A new framework for developing and evaluating complex interventions: Update of Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 374, n2061. doi
              • Rossi, P. H., Lipsey, M. W., & Freeman, H. E. (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach (7th ed.). Sage.
              Outdoor learning spaces

              Playgrounds, gardens, fields and nearby natural areas used for learning. Blackmore et al. (2011) note how little research examines the links between indoor and outdoor spaces.

              • Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. education.vic.gov.au
              Overjustification effect

              The finding that an expected reward for an activity someone already enjoys can reduce their later interest in it (Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).

              • Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the "overjustification" hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129–137. doi
              • Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. doi
              • Cameron, J., Banko, K. M., & Pierce, W. D. (2001). Pervasive negative effects of rewards on intrinsic motivation: The myth continues. The Behavior Analyst, 24(1), 1–44. doi
              Overlapping waves model

              Siegler's model of how children's thinking changes: at any one age children use several strategies at once, and with experience the more efficient ones become more common while older ones do not vanish (Siegler, 1996).

              • Siegler, R. S. (1996). Emerging minds: The process of change in children's thinking. Oxford University Press.
              • Siegler, R. S. (2005). Children's learning. American Psychologist, 60(8), 769–778. doi
              P
              Paradox of the East Asian learner

              The observation that students in Confucian-heritage classrooms appeared to Westerners to be "rote learning massive amounts of information in fierce exam-dominated classrooms" and yet "greatly outperformed western students learning in ‘progressive’ western classrooms" (Chan & Rao, 2010). The resolution lay in how memorisation and understanding were related, not in a hidden method.

              • Chan, C. K. K., & Rao, N. (Eds.). (2010). Revisiting the Chinese learner: Changing contexts, changing education. Springer. link.springer.com
              • Watkins, D. A., & Biggs, J. B. (Eds.). (1996). The Chinese learner: Cultural, psychological and contextual influences. Comparative Education Research Centre; Australian Council for Educational Research.
              Parental engagement

              Deliberate work to involve families in children's learning, from home reading to structured communication. The association with attainment is well established; the causal evidence is thinner, and effects are clearest with younger children (See & Gorard, 2015).

              • See, B. H., & Gorard, S. (2015). The role of parents in young people’s education—a critical review of the causal evidence. Oxford Review of Education, 41(3), 346–366. doi
              • Education Endowment Foundation. (n.d.). Parental engagement [Teaching and learning toolkit]. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
              Parity of esteem

              The long-standing policy aim of equal standing for academic and vocational qualifications, which Wolf calls a misguided objective because every country has a status hierarchy for school and university level options (Wolf, 2011).

              Path dependence

              The property of a process in which early choices generate increasing returns that make later reversal expensive, so the range of live options narrows over time (Pierson, 2000). It explains both the strength of long policy lines and the difficulty of turning them.

              • Pierson, P. (2000). Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics. American Political Science Review, 94(2), 251–267. doi
              • David, P. A. (1985). Clio and the economics of QWERTY. The American Economic Review, 75(2), 332–337.
              • Arthur, W. B. (1994). Increasing returns and path dependence in the economy. University of Michigan Press. doi
              PDSA cycle

              Plan, do, study, act: a short test of a change in real conditions, with a prediction made before the test and a decision made after it. The working unit of improvement science (Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, n.d.).

              • Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. (n.d.). The six core principles of improvement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from carnegiefoundation.org
              • Bryk, A. S., Gomez, L. M., Grunow, A., & LeMahieu, P. G. (2015). Learning to improve: How America’s schools can get better at getting better. Harvard Education Press.
              Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

              The knowledge that makes a subject teachable: useful representations and examples, and what makes a topic easy or hard for particular learners (Shulman, 1986). Shulman (1987) called it a "special amalgam of content and pedagogy".

              C12 The knowledge of how to represent and teach a particular subject to particular learners (Shulman, 1986). Its home in this series is C05, which covers it and TPACK in depth.

              • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
              • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi
              • Kansanen, P. (2009). Subject-matter didactics as a central knowledge base for teachers, or should it be called pedagogical content knowledge? Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 17(1), 29–39. doi
              Pedagogy

              "The act of teaching together with its attendant discourse": what one needs to know and be able to do to make and justify teaching decisions (Alexander, 2004). In English it is often narrowed to teaching method.

              • Alexander, R. (2004). Still no pedagogy? Principle, pragmatism and compliance in primary education. Cambridge Journal of Education, 34(1), 7–33. doi
              • Hopmann, S. (2007). Restrained teaching: The common core of Didaktik. European Educational Research Journal, 6(2), 109–124. doi
              Peer assessment

              Students judging each other’s work against criteria, usually to improve it rather than to grade it. A meta-analysis of 54 studies found an overall effect on performance of g = 0.31 (Double et al., 2020).

              • Double, K. S., McGrane, J. A., & Hopfenbeck, T. N. (2020). The impact of peer assessment on academic performance: A meta-analysis of control group studies. Educational Psychology Review, 32(2), 481–509. doi
              • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
              Peer review

              Assessment of a manuscript by other researchers before publication. It filters obvious error but does not verify data, reproduce analyses, or correct for the incentive to publish positive findings.

              • Polanin, J. R., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). Estimating the difference between published and unpublished effect sizes: A meta-review. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 207–236. doi
              Per-student funding

              Money allocated by headcount, usually varying by stage. It is the comparable unit across systems and years, because total spending moves with enrolment.

              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025). Education statistics digest 2025. moe.gov.sg
              • OECD. (2017). The funding of school education: Connecting resources and learning. OECD Reviews of School Resources. OECD Publishing. doi
              • Jackson, C. K., Johnson, R. C., & Persico, C. (2016). The effects of school spending on educational and economic outcomes: Evidence from school finance reforms. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 131(1), 157–218. doi
              Performance assessment

              Assessment in which students produce or do something extended, such as an experiment, a design or a presentation, and are judged on the performance itself.

              • Wiggins, G. (1990). The case for authentic assessment (ERIC Digest ED328611). ERIC Clearinghouse on Tests, Measurement and Evaluation. files.eric.ed.gov
              • Koretz, D., Stecher, B., Klein, S., & McCaffrey, D. (1994). The Vermont portfolio assessment program: Findings and implications. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 13(3), 5–16. doi
              Performance indicators

              The specific quantities a system chooses to watch. The choice is a governance act: effort follows what is published, which is the mechanism behind both the gains and the distortions of test-based accountability (Figlio & Loeb, 2011; Bevan & Hood, 2006).

              • Figlio, D., & Loeb, S. (2011). School accountability. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 3, pp. 383–421). Elsevier. ideas.repec.org
              • Bevan, G., & Hood, C. (2006). What’s measured is what matters: Targets and gaming in the English public health care system. Public Administration, 84(3), 517–538. doi
              • Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. doi
              Performances of understanding

              Also called understanding performances. Activities that ask students to use what they know in thought-demanding ways, such as explaining, applying or representing a topic anew, and that both show and advance understanding (Perkins & Blythe, 1994).

              • Perkins, D., & Blythe, T. (1994). Putting understanding up front. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 4–7. ascd.org
              • Wiske, M. S. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. Jossey-Bass.
              Person-first and identity-first language

              Person-first wording, such as "students with disabilities", follows the UN Convention; many disabled and autistic people prefer identity-first wording, such as "autistic student", and no term suits everyone (Kenny et al., 2016).

              • Kenny, L., Hattersley, C., Molins, B., Buckley, C., Povey, C., & Pellicano, E. (2016). Which terms should be used to describe autism? Perspectives from the UK autism community. Autism, 20(4), 442–462. doi
              Personalised learning

              Instruction adjusted to each learner's pace, needs or interests, often through software. Its promises echo those of teaching machines (Watters, 2021).

              • Watters, A. (2021). Teaching machines: The history of personalized learning. MIT Press.
              • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can't transform education. Harvard University Press.
              Perspective-taking

              Imagining how a scene looks from another position. It is an extrinsic, dynamic spatial skill (Yang et al., 2020).

              • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
              • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
              Phonics

              Teaching the relationships between letters and sounds so that pupils can decode and spell. Systematic phonics has meta-analytic support (Ehri et al., 2001) and is one strand of reading, not the whole.

              • Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. doi
              • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
              • Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department for Education and Skills.
              Physical literacy

              “The motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life”, in the definition quoted by Edwards et al. (2017), after Whitehead (2001).

              • Whitehead, M. (2001). The concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education, 6(2), 127–138. doi
              • Edwards, L. C., Bryant, A. S., Keegan, R. J., Morgan, K., & Jones, A. M. (2017). Definitions, foundations and associations of physical literacy: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(1), 113–126. doi
              Physically active learning

              Lessons that combine academic content with physical activity, such as moving around the room to answer questions. It raises activity during lessons; effects on attainment are small and uncertain (Norris et al., 2020; Bedard et al., 2019).

              • Norris, E., van Steen, T., Direito, A., & Stamatakis, E. (2020). Physically active lessons in schools and their impact on physical activity, educational, health and cognition outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(14), 826–838. doi
              • Bedard, C., St John, L., Bremer, E., Graham, J. D., & Cairney, J. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of physically active classrooms on educational and enjoyment outcomes in school age children. PLOS ONE, 14(6), e0218633. doi
              PIAAC

              The OECD’s Survey of Adult Skills, which measures "adults’ literacy, numeracy, and adaptive problem solving skills". Thirty-one countries and economies took part in the 2023 survey (OECD, 2024).

              • OECD. (2024). Do adults have the skills they need to thrive in a changing world? Survey of Adult Skills 2023. OECD Publishing. doi
              Piaget's stages

              Four stages of reasoning, from sensorimotor through preoperational and concrete operational to formal operational thought; later research kept the changes and loosened the timetable (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969).

              • Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. Basic Books.
              Pilot evaluation

              The evaluation of a small first run, normally to test whether the programme can be delivered and whether an outcome study is feasible. A pilot with volunteers, extra support and no comparison cannot tell you whether the programme works.

              • Skivington, K., Matthews, L., Simpson, S. A., Craig, P., Baird, J., Blazeby, J. M., Boyd, K. A., Craig, N., French, D. P., McIntosh, E., Petticrew, M., Rycroft-Malone, J., White, M., & Moore, L. (2021). A new framework for developing and evaluating complex interventions: Update of Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 374, n2061. doi
              Pilot-to-scale

              The move from a small, supported trial to system-wide use. Effects normally fall in the move: in teacher coaching, programmes with 100 teachers or more showed effects one-third to one-half the size of smaller ones (Kraft & Blazar, 2018).

              • Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547–588. doi
              • Kraft, M. A., & Blazar, D. (2018, July 31). Taking teacher coaching to scale. Education Next, 18(4). educationnext.org
              • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
              Pilots

              Small first implementations used to find practical problems, build local expertise and refine a design before a wider rollout. A pilot in volunteer or well-prepared sites tests feasibility rather than predicting what a full rollout will produce. Primer C22 covers what an evaluation can establish.

              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2019, September 3). One secondary education, many subject bands: 28 secondary schools to pilot Full Subject-Based Banding [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
              • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
              PIRLS

              The IEA’s Progress in International Reading Literacy Study, run every five years in the fourth year of schooling. Its scale centrepoint of 500 "was set to correspond to the mean of overall achievement in 2001, with 100 points set to correspond to the standard deviation" (Mullis et al., 2023).

              • Mullis, I. V. S., von Davier, M., Foy, P., Fishbein, B., Reynolds, K. A., & Wry, E. (2023). PIRLS 2021 international results in reading. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. doi
              • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2023a, May 16). Strong performance by Singapore students in reading literacy despite COVID-19 pandemic: International study [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
              PISA

              The OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment, which "measures 15-year-olds’ ability to use their reading, mathematics and science knowledge and skills to meet real-life challenges" (OECD, n.d.-a). It has run every three years since 2000, with a one-year delay in the 2022 cycle.

              • OECD. (n.d.-a). Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from oecd.org
              • OECD. (2023a). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
              • Goldstein, H. (2004). International comparisons of student attainment: Some issues arising from the PISA study. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 319–330. doi
              PISA shock

              A public crisis of confidence triggered by a disappointing international result. The 2014 open letter noted that lack of progress "has led to declarations of crisis and ‘Pisa shock’ in many countries, followed by calls for resignations, and far-reaching reforms" (Andrews et al., 2014). Germany after 2000 is the usual example (Ertl, 2006).

              • Ertl, H. (2006). Educational standards and the changing discourse on education: The reception and consequences of the PISA study in Germany. Oxford Review of Education, 32(5), 619–634. doi
              • Andrews, P., et al. (2014, May 6). OECD and Pisa tests are damaging education worldwide – academics [Letter]. The Guardian. theguardian.com
              Place and plausibility illusion

              Place illusion is the sense of "being there". Plausibility illusion is "the illusion that the scenario being depicted is actually occurring" (Slater, 2009).

              • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
              • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
              Platform, deliberation and design

              Walker's (1971) three phases of curriculum planning: the beliefs and images a group starts from, the arguing that follows, and the decisions that result.

              • Walker, D. F. (1971). A naturalistic model for curriculum development. The School Review, 80(1), 51–65. doi
              • Kessels, J. W. M., & Plomp, T. (1996). Course design. In T. Plomp & D. P. Ely (Eds.), International encyclopedia of educational technology (2nd ed., pp. 143–148). Pergamon. josephkessels.com
              PLATO

              A computer-based education system from the University of Illinois, begun in the early 1960s and used for four decades (University of Illinois Distributed Museum, n.d.).

              Plausible values

              Imputed scores drawn for each student, since no student answers enough items to be scored individually. PISA estimates "ten plausible values… for each student for each scale", representing "the distribution of potential scores for all students in the population with similar characteristics" (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). Valid for populations, invalid for individuals.

              • National Center for Education Statistics. (n.d.). PISA 2022: Technical notes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from nces.ed.gov
              • Mislevy, R. J. (1991). Randomization-based inference about latent variables from complex samples. Psychometrika, 56(2), 177–196. doi
              Play-based learning

              Early years practice in which children’s own activity carries the curriculum, with adults extending it rather than directing it. It is not the opposite of teaching: EPPE found effective settings combined child-initiated activity with adult-led “sustained shared thinking” (Sylva et al., 2004).

              • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from pre-school to end of Key Stage 1 (SSU/SF/2004/01). Department for Education and Skills. dera.ioe.ac.uk
              • Marcon, R. A. (2002). Moving up the grades: Relationship between preschool model and later school success. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1). ecrp.illinois.edu
              Policy actors

              The positions staff take up towards a policy inside one school: narrators, entrepreneurs, translators, transactors, enthusiasts, critics, receivers and outsiders. They are a vocabulary for looking, not a validated typology (Ball et al., 2011).

              • Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., Braun, A., & Hoskins, K. (2011). Policy actors: Doing policy work in schools. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(4), 625–639. doi
              • Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2012). How schools do policy: Policy enactments in secondary schools. Routledge. doi
              Policy borrowing and lending

              The movement of educational policy between systems, studied as a political process rather than a technical one. Steiner-Khamsi (2016) frames the research question as "why traveling reforms resonate in a given context and at a specific moment, and how they are subsequently translated or locally adapted".

              • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (Ed.). (2004). The global politics of educational borrowing and lending. Teachers College Press.
              • Phillips, D., & Ochs, K. (2003). Processes of policy borrowing in education: Some explanatory and analytical devices. Comparative Education, 39(4), 451–461. doi
              • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2016). New directions in policy borrowing research. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(3), 381–390. doi
              Policy coherence

              The degree to which the instruments, messages and accountability demands reaching a school point in the same direction. Incoherence is usually experienced at the front line as overload rather than as contradiction, because contradictory demands still have to be met.

              • Honig, M. I. (Ed.). (2006). New directions in education policy implementation: Confronting complexity. State University of New York Press. doi
              • Honig, M. I., & Hatch, T. C. (2004). Crafting coherence: How schools strategically manage multiple, external demands. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 16–30. doi
              Policy cycle

              The heuristic that divides policy into agenda setting, formulation, decision, implementation and evaluation (Jann & Wegrich, 2007). Useful for teaching that policy is a process; misleading if read as a description, because the stages overlap and implementation is much larger than one box.

              • Jann, W., & Wegrich, K. (2007). Theories of the policy cycle. In F. Fischer, G. J. Miller, & M. S. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, and methods (pp. 43–62). CRC Press.
              • Cairney, P. (n.d.). Evidence-based policymaking (EBPM). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from paulcairney.wordpress.com
              Policy enactment

              Ball, Maguire and Braun's (2012) term for what schools do with policy: interpret it, translate it and put it to work in a particular place with particular people, rather than simply receive and implement it.

              • Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2012). How schools do policy: Policy enactments in secondary schools. Routledge. doi
              • Braun, A., Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., & Hoskins, K. (2011). Taking context seriously: Towards explaining policy enactments in the secondary school. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(4), 585–596. doi
              • Maguire, M., Braun, A., & Ball, S. (2015). “Where you stand depends on where you sit”: The social construction of policy enactments in the (English) secondary school. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 36(4), 485–499. discovery.ucl.ac.uk
              Policy evaluation

              The stage at which a policy's effects are examined, and the point at which the cycle is supposed to feed the next agenda. In practice, evaluation often arrives after the next decision has been taken.

              • Jann, W., & Wegrich, K. (2007). Theories of the policy cycle. In F. Fischer, G. J. Miller, & M. S. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, and methods (pp. 43–62). CRC Press.
              • Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. doi
              Policy formulation

              The stage at which options are developed and an instrument is chosen. This is where most of the consequential design happens, and where the choice of instrument is often made by habit rather than analysis.

              • Jann, W., & Wegrich, K. (2007). Theories of the policy cycle. In F. Fischer, G. J. Miller, & M. S. Sidney (Eds.), Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, and methods (pp. 43–62). CRC Press.
              • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
              Policy instruments

              The means by which government brings its resources to bear: rules, money for action now, money for capacity later, or authority moved to different hands (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987a). Each instrument embeds a different assumption about why the desired behaviour is absent.

              • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987a). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152. doi
              • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
              • Schneider, A., & Ingram, H. (1990). Behavioral assumptions of policy tools. The Journal of Politics, 52(2), 510–529. doi
              Policy translation

              The work of turning a policy text into the events, routines, templates and materials that carry it in a school. Distinct from interpretation, which decides what the policy means here (Ball et al., 2012).

              • Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., & Braun, A. (2012). How schools do policy: Policy enactments in secondary schools. Routledge. doi
              • Ball, S. J., Maguire, M., Braun, A., & Hoskins, K. (2011). Policy actors: Doing policy work in schools. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 32(4), 625–639. doi
              Policy windows

              Short openings in which a problem, a solution and a favourable politics can be coupled, so that an item reaches the agenda. Windows close, which is why a solution has to be ready before one opens (Kingdon, 1995).

              • Kingdon, J. W. (1995). Agendas, alternatives, and public policies (2nd ed.). HarperCollins.
              • Cohen, M. D., March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (1972). A garbage can model of organizational choice. Administrative Science Quarterly, 17(1), 1–25. doi
              Pólya’s four steps

              A long-standing structure for problem solving: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry it out, and look back at the solution (Pólya, 1945).

              • Pólya, G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University Press.
              Polytechnic and ITE education (SG)

              Singapore’s applied post-secondary routes. The Institute of Technical Education, established in 1992, offers Nitec, Higher Nitec, full-time Technical Diplomas and employer-partnered Work-Study Diplomas; polytechnics offer diplomas described as “hands-on, practice-based learning” (Institute of Technical Education, n.d.; Ministry of Education, n.d.-c).

              • Institute of Technical Education. (n.d.). About ITE. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from ite.edu.sg
              • Ministry of Education. (n.d.-c). Overview of Post-Secondary Education Institutions. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
              • Ministry of Education. (2025). Education Statistics Digest 2025. moe.gov.sg
              Portfolios

              Collections of student work assembled over time, often with reflection. Rich for learning; hard to score consistently across classrooms, as Vermont's programme showed (Koretz et al., 1994).

              • Koretz, D., Stecher, B., Klein, S., & McCaffrey, D. (1994). The Vermont portfolio assessment program: Findings and implications. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 13(3), 5–16. doi
              Positivism

              The position that there is a regular social world that can be measured, and that research should seek generalisable relations within it. Most quantitative education research operates on assumptions of this kind.

              • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
              • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
              Possible, plausible, probable and preferred futures

              The four claims a statement about the future can make: it might happen, it could happen given how the world works, it is likely on current trends, or it ought to happen. The classes nest (Voros, 2003, 2017).

              • Voros, J. (2003). A generic foresight process framework. Foresight, 5(3), 10–21. doi
              • Hancock, T., & Bezold, C. (1994). Possible futures, preferable futures. Healthcare Forum Journal, 37(2), 23–29.
              • Voros, J. (2017, February 24). The futures cone, use and history [Blog post]. The Voroscope. thevoroscope.com
              Post-occupancy evaluation

              A systematic evaluation of how a building performs once it is in use (Preiser, 1995). For learning spaces, it should include how teaching and learning have changed (Cleveland & Fisher, 2014).

              • Preiser, W. F. E. (1995). Post-occupancy evaluation: How to make buildings work better. Facilities, 13(11), 19–28. doi
              • Cleveland, B., & Fisher, K. (2014). The evaluation of physical learning environments: A critical review of the literature. Learning Environments Research, 17(1), 1–28. doi
              • Imms, W., Cleveland, B., & Fisher, K. (Eds.). (2016). Evaluating learning environments. Sense Publishers. doi
              Post-secondary pathways

              The set of routes open after compulsory school: academic pre-university courses, applied diplomas, technical certificates, apprenticeships, employment with training, and combinations of these. Which routes exist, and how easily a learner can move between them, is a policy choice.

              • Ministry of Education. (2025). Education Statistics Digest 2025. moe.gov.sg
              • Ministry of Education. (n.d.-c). Overview of Post-Secondary Education Institutions. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
              • Wolf, A. (2011). Review of vocational education: The Wolf report (DFE-00031-2011). Department for Education. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
              Powerful knowledge

              Specialised, discipline-based knowledge that gives access to ideas students are unlikely to meet outside school (Young & Muller, 2013).

              C10 Specialised, discipline-based knowledge that gives those who have it capacities they would not otherwise get, and which most students can reach only through school (Young, 2008, 2013; Young & Muller, 2013). Young contrasts it with "knowledge of the powerful", which asks only who wrote the curriculum.

              • Young, M., & Muller, J. (2013). On the powers of powerful knowledge. Review of Education, 1(3), 229–250. doi
              • Young, M. (2008). Bringing knowledge back in: From social constructivism to social realism in the sociology of education. Routledge. doi
              • Muller, J., & Young, M. (2019). Knowledge, power and powerful knowledge re-visited. The Curriculum Journal, 30(2), 196–214. doi
              Practitioner inquiry

              Systematic, intentional study of one’s own professional practice. Cochran-Smith and Lytle (2009) describe it as a stance towards teaching and knowledge rather than a project with an end date.

              • Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2009). Inquiry as stance: Practitioner research for the next generation. Teachers College Press.
              • Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4), 34–46. doi
              Pragmatism

              The position that the research question, not a prior philosophy, should decide the method, and that knowledge is judged by what it enables people to do.

              • Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26. doi
              • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
              Pre-service and in-service teacher education

              Pre-service education prepares people before they teach; in-service education, often called professional development or professional learning, continues it during a career. In Singapore, the National Institute of Education provides initial teacher preparation (Low, 2024).

              • Low, E. L. (2024). Editorial: Teacher education in Singapore in the twenty-first century—the past, the present and envisioning the future. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 23(3), 337–344. doi
              • Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947–967. doi
              Preregistration

              Publicly recording hypotheses, design and analysis plan before the data are seen. Nosek et al. (2018) describe it as separating the generation of a hypothesis from its test.

              • Nosek, B. A., Ebersole, C. R., DeHaven, A. C., & Mellor, D. T. (2018). The preregistration revolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(11), 2600–2606. doi
              Presence

              "A state of consciousness" that may accompany immersion, "related to a sense of being in a place" (Slater & Wilbur, 1997). It is a feeling, not a learning outcome.

              • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
              • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
              • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
              Pressure and support

              McLaughlin's formulation that effective implementation needs a strategic balance of the two: pressure alone produces the appearance of change, and support alone produces drift (McLaughlin, 1987).

              • McLaughlin, M. W. (1987). Learning from experience: Lessons from policy implementation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 171–178. doi
              Principal–agent theory

              The economic framing of governance: one party acts on behalf of another whose interests and information differ, which generates monitoring costs and incentive design problems (Eisenhardt, 1989; Jensen & Meckling, 1976).

              • Jensen, M. C., & Meckling, W. H. (1976). Theory of the firm: Managerial behavior, agency costs and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3(4), 305–360. doi
              • Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Agency theory: An assessment and review. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 57–74. doi
              Principles of instruction

              Rosenshine's ten principles, drawn from cognitive science, studies of effective teachers and research on cognitive supports: begin with review, teach in small steps, ask many questions, model, guide practice and check understanding (Rosenshine, 2012).

              • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
              Problem-based learning

              Learning that starts from a realistic, often ill-structured problem, with students identifying what they need to learn, usually in groups with a tutor. Widely used in medical education (Dochy et al., 2003).

              • Dochy, F., Segers, M., Van den Bossche, P., & Gijbels, D. (2003). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis. Learning and Instruction, 13(5), 533–568. doi
              • Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. doi
              • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
              Process and implementation evaluation

              Evaluation of whether a programme was delivered as intended and how it was experienced, covering fidelity, quality, reach and the contextual factors behind variation in outcomes (Moore et al., 2015).

              • Moore, G. F., Audrey, S., Barker, M., Bond, L., Bonell, C., Hardeman, W., Moore, L., O’Cathain, A., Tinati, T., Wight, D., & Baird, J. (2015). Process evaluation of complex interventions: Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 350, h1258. doi
              • Skivington, K., Matthews, L., Simpson, S. A., Craig, P., Baird, J., Blazeby, J. M., Boyd, K. A., Craig, N., French, D. P., McIntosh, E., Petticrew, M., Rycroft-Malone, J., White, M., & Moore, L. (2021). A new framework for developing and evaluating complex interventions: Update of Medical Research Council guidance. BMJ, 374, n2061. doi
              Process model

              A model that specifies principles of procedure instead of outcomes: it states what the encounter should be like and leaves the outcomes open, which makes evaluation harder and teaching more demanding (Stenhouse, 1975).

              • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
              • Smith, M. K. (2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. infed.org
              Productive failure

              A design in which students attempt complex problems before being taught the target concept, followed by explicit instruction that builds on their attempts (Kapur, 2008; Sinha & Kapur, 2021).

              • Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379–424. doi
              • Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021). When problem solving followed by instruction works: Evidence for productive failure. Review of Educational Research, 91(5), 761–798. doi
              Productive struggle

              Effortful attempts at a problem before instruction, where the difficulty is at the edge of what a learner can do and is followed by teaching that consolidates the attempt (Sinha & Kapur, 2021).

              • Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021). When problem solving followed by instruction works: Evidence for productive failure. Review of Educational Research, 91(5), 761–798. doi
              • Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379–424. doi
              Professional accountability

              The horizontal form of accountability that works through "credible, useful standards and the creation of professional learning communities" rather than through reputation, so that schools answer to standards and peers (Hooge et al., 2012).

              • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
              Professional capital

              The individual skill of teachers, the quality of their relationships, and the judgement built by exercising it; it accumulates slowly and can be spent quickly (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).

              • Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
              • Lee, D. H. L., & Lee, W. O. (2018). Transformational change in instruction with professional learning communities? The influence of teacher cultural disposition in high power distance contexts. Journal of Educational Change, 19(4), 463–488. doi
              Professional judgement

              Deciding well in situations that rules and scripts do not fully cover, drawing on knowledge, experience and the aims of education. Hargreaves and Fullan (2012) call the capacity for it decisional capital.

              • Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
              • Biesta, G., Priestley, M., & Robinson, S. (2015). The role of beliefs in teacher agency. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 624–640. doi
              • Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
              Professional learning communities

              Teams of staff who work together on practice with a focus on student learning, shared enquiry and results (DuFour, 2004; Stoll et al., 2006). The label spreads faster than the practice, so the useful question is what the team actually does, and when.

              • DuFour, R. (2004). What is a “professional learning community”? Educational Leadership, 61(8), 6–11.
              • Stoll, L., Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Wallace, M., & Thomas, S. (2006). Professional learning communities: A review of the literature. Journal of Educational Change, 7(4), 221–258. doi
              • Vescio, V., Ross, D., & Adams, A. (2008). A review of research on the impact of professional learning communities on teaching practice and student learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(1), 80–91. doi
              Program Evaluation Standards

              Thirty standards in five categories: utility, feasibility, propriety, accuracy and accountability. They are the field's nearest thing to a shared code, and utility comes first (Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation, 2018).

              • Yarbrough, D. B., Shulha, L. M., Hopson, R. K., & Caruthers, F. A. (2011). The program evaluation standards: A guide for evaluators and evaluation users (3rd ed.). Sage.
              • Joint Committee on Standards for Educational Evaluation. (2018). Checklist of the program evaluation standards statements. files.wmich.edu
              Programme evaluation

              The systematic assessment of a programme's merit, worth, probity and significance, for people who have to decide something about it (Stufflebeam, 2007). It is a field with its own models, standards and professional bodies.

              C21 Judging the merit, worth or value of a programme for the people who must decide about it. It has its own discipline, standards and models, covered in Programme evaluation (C22).

              • Stufflebeam, D. L. (2007). CIPP evaluation model checklist (2nd ed.). The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
              • Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Sage.
              • Yarbrough, D. B., Shulha, L. M., Hopson, R. K., & Caruthers, F. A. (2011). The program evaluation standards: A guide for evaluators and evaluation users (3rd ed.). Sage.
              Programme theory

              The account of how and why a programme is supposed to produce its effects, including the mechanisms it relies on and the conditions it needs (Weiss, 1997b; Coryn et al., 2011).

              • Weiss, C. H. (1997b). How can theory-based evaluation make greater headway? Evaluation Review, 21(4), 501–524. doi
              • Weiss, C. H. (1997a). Theory-based evaluation: Past, present, and future. New Directions for Evaluation, 1997(76), 41–55. doi
              • Coryn, C. L. S., Noakes, L. A., Westine, C. D., & Schröter, D. C. (2011). A systematic review of theory-driven evaluation practice from 1990 to 2009. American Journal of Evaluation, 32(2), 199–226. doi
              Programmed instruction

              Learning material broken into small steps, each needing a response and giving immediate feedback, as in Skinner's teaching machines (Skinner, 1958).

              • Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128(3330), 969–977. doi
              • Skinner, B. F. (1954). The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review, 24(2), 86–97.
              • Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1988). A history of teaching machines. American Psychologist, 43(9), 703–712. doi
              Project-based learning

              Learning organised around an extended project that ends in a product or presentation. It overlaps with problem-based learning but usually runs longer and centres on making something.

              • Blumenfeld, P. C., Soloway, E., Marx, R. W., Krajcik, J. S., Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 369–398. doi
              Proprioception and kinaesthesia

              Proprioception is the sense of the position of one's body parts; kinaesthesia is the sense of their movement. See C03 and C12 for motor development and physical literacy.

                Public procurement

                The rules governing purchases made with public money. Singapore states three principles: transparency, open and fair competition, and value for money (Ministry of Finance, 2025).

                • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2026). Procurement processes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                Public–private partnerships

                Long-term arrangements in which a private party finances, builds or operates part of a public service under contract. The World Bank's survey sets out the main forms and the conditions under which each has been used (Patrinos et al., 2009).

                • Patrinos, H. A., Barrera-Osorio, F., & Guáqueta, J. (2009). The role and impact of public-private partnerships in education. World Bank. doi
                Publication bias

                The tendency for positive and statistically significant results to be published more readily. Polanin et al. (2016) estimate the gap between published and unpublished effects at about 0.18 standard deviations.

                • Polanin, J. R., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Hennessy, E. A. (2016). Estimating the difference between published and unpublished effect sizes: A meta-review. Review of Educational Research, 86(1), 207–236. doi
                • Cheung, A. C. K., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). How methodological features affect effect sizes in education. Educational Researcher, 45(5), 283–292. doi
                Purposes of education

                The ends education is meant to serve. Biesta (2015) treats the question of purpose as the most fundamental question in education, and as always multi-dimensional.

                • Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75–87. doi
                • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
                • Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. Macmillan. gutenberg.org
                Q
                Qualification

                The domain of purpose concerned with the knowledge, skills and understanding that enable a person to do something, from a trade to taking part in a culture (Biesta, 2009).

                • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
                • Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75–87. doi
                Qualitative and quantitative research

                Research working chiefly with meanings, accounts and observations, and research working chiefly with counts and measures. The distinction describes data, not rigour, and many studies use both.

                • Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), 14–26. doi
                • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
                • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
                Quasi-experiment

                A comparison study without random assignment, using matching, a threshold, or changes over time to approximate a counterfactual. The What Works Clearinghouse (2022) allows such designs to meet its standards only "with reservations".

                • What Works Clearinghouse. (2022). What Works Clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook, version 5.0. Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. ies.ed.gov
                • Thistlethwaite, D. L., & Campbell, D. T. (1960). Regression-discontinuity analysis: An alternative to the ex post facto experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(6), 309–317. doi
                Quasi-markets

                Arrangements in which the state still funds and regulates while families choose between competing providers. Hooge and colleagues (2012) treat market mechanisms as one route to decentralisation, with mixed effects on quality and evidence of increased segregation.

                • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
                • Epple, D., Romano, R. E., & Urquiola, M. (2017). School vouchers: A survey of the economics literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(2), 441–492. doi
                Questioning

                The teacher's use of questions to check understanding, prompt thinking and steer discussion. Rosenshine (2012) found that effective teachers asked many questions and checked the responses of all students.

                • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
                • Alexander, R. (2020). A dialogic teaching companion. Routledge. doi
                R
                Randomised controlled trial

                A study in which units are assigned to conditions by chance, so that the groups differ only by chance before the intervention. In education the units are often whole classes or schools.

                • Slavin, R. E. (2002). Evidence-based education policies: Transforming educational practice and research. Educational Researcher, 31(7), 15–21. doi
                • Connolly, P., Keenan, C., & Urbanska, K. (2018). The trials of evidence-based practice in education: A systematic review of randomised controlled trials in education research 1980–2016. Educational Research, 60(3), 276–291. doi
                • Lortie-Forgues, H., & Inglis, M. (2019). Rigorous large-scale educational RCTs are often uninformative: Should we be concerned? Educational Researcher, 48(3), 158–166. doi
                Range of ranks

                The band of positions a system's mean could occupy in an ordered table, because every published mean is an estimate with a sampling error and the order moves more than the scores do.

                • National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). International comparisons: Reading, mathematics, and science literacy of 15-year-old students. In The condition of education 2024. U.S. Department of Education. nces.ed.gov
                • Goldstein, H. (2004). International comparisons of student attainment: Some issues arising from the PISA study. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 319–330. doi
                • Mortimore, P. (2009). Alternative models for analysing and representing countries’ performance in PISA. Education International Research Institute. ei-ie.org
                Rankings and their uncertainty

                Every published mean is estimated from a sample and carries a standard error. Ordering the means discards that information. The IEA notes "considerable overlapping of confidence intervals" between countries (Mullis et al., 2023), and the OECD prints 95% intervals on its own country figures (OECD, 2023b).

                • Goldstein, H. (2004). International comparisons of student attainment: Some issues arising from the PISA study. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 11(3), 319–330. doi
                • Mortimore, P. (2009). Alternative models for analysing and representing countries’ performance in PISA. Education International Research Institute. ei-ie.org
                • Mullis, I. V. S., von Davier, M., Foy, P., Fishbein, B., Reynolds, K. A., & Wry, E. (2023). PIRLS 2021 international results in reading. TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, Boston College. doi
                Reading comprehension

                Understanding what is read. In the simple view it is the product of decoding and language comprehension, so it fails if either is weak (Gough & Tunmer, 1986).

                • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
                • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
                • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
                Reading wars

                The long argument over how beginners should be taught to read, phonics first or meaning first. Most disagreement now is about emphasis, sequence and decodable texts, not whether to teach phonics (Castles et al., 2018).

                • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
                • Goodman, K. S. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6(4), 126–135. doi
                • Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. doi
                Realist evaluation

                An approach that asks what works for whom in what circumstances, treating context as part of the finding rather than as noise (Pawson & Tilley, 1997).

                C22 Evaluation that asks "What works for whom in what circumstances and in what respects, and how?", on the claim that an outcome follows from a mechanism firing in a context (Pawson & Tilley, 2004).

                • Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (1997). Realistic evaluation. Sage.
                • Pawson, R., & Tilley, N. (2004). Realist evaluation. cnxus.org
                Recognition of prior learning

                Assessing and certifying what someone already knows and can do, however they learned it, so that it counts toward a qualification or an exemption. It matters most for adults returning to formal study and is administratively expensive to do well.

                • Allais, S. (2014). Selling out education: National qualifications frameworks and the neglect of knowledge. SensePublishers. doi
                Redistribution and recognition

                The argument that "justice today requires both redistribution and recognition": remedies aimed only at money can leave misrecognition untouched, while remedies aimed only at recognition leave the money where it was (Fraser, 1995).

                • Fraser, N. (1995). From redistribution to recognition? Dilemmas of justice in a “post-socialist” age. New Left Review, I(212), 68–93. newleftreview.org
                Reference society

                A system repeatedly invoked in another country’s debate as an authority. Steiner-Khamsi (2016) describes references to a "league leader" used as "a quasi-external source of authority to certify certain, possibly controversial reforms in the domestic context".

                • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2016). New directions in policy borrowing research. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(3), 381–390. doi
                • Waldow, F., Takayama, K., & Sung, Y.-K. (2014). Rethinking the pattern of external policy referencing: Media discourses over the ‘Asian Tigers’’ PISA success in Australia, Germany and South Korea. Comparative Education, 50(3), 302–321. doi
                Reflective practice

                Learning from one's own practice by thinking about it during and after the event. Schön (1983) described reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action as how professionals handle situations that theory does not settle.

                • Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. Basic Books.
                • Clarke, D., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(8), 947–967. doi
                Regression discontinuity

                A design that compares units just above and just below a cut-off for receiving something, on the argument that they are otherwise alike. Introduced by Thistlethwaite and Campbell (1960).

                • Thistlethwaite, D. L., & Campbell, D. T. (1960). Regression-discontinuity analysis: An alternative to the ex post facto experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51(6), 309–317. doi
                • What Works Clearinghouse. (2022). What Works Clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook, version 5.0. Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. ies.ed.gov
                Relational trust

                The trust among teachers, leaders, parents and students that makes shared improvement possible. See primer C15, How schools work.

                C15 Trust between people in roles, grounded in "respect, personal regard, competence in core role responsibilities, and personal integrity" (Bryk & Schneider, 2003). It is a working condition rather than a mood.

                • Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2014). Can professional environments in schools promote teacher development? Explaining heterogeneity in returns to teaching experience. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(4), 476–500. doi
                • Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2002). Trust in schools: A core resource for improvement. Russell Sage Foundation.
                • Bryk, A. S., & Schneider, B. (2003). Trust in schools: A core resource for school reform. Educational Leadership, 60(6), 40–44. ascd.org
                Reliability

                "The degree to which test scores for a group of test takers are consistent over repeated applications of a measurement procedure" (AERA et al., 2014). It limits, but does not guarantee, validity.

                • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                • Wiliam, D. (2001). Reliability, validity, and all that jazz. Education 3–13, 29(3), 17–21. discovery.ucl.ac.uk
                • Ofqual. (2018). Marking consistency metrics: An update (Ofqual/18/6449/2). Office of Qualifications and Examinations Regulation. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
                Relief teaching

                Teaching a class in place of its usual teacher for a short period, also called cover or supply teaching. Singapore employs relief educators "to cover primarily teaching duties" (Ministry of Education, n.d.-c).

                • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). Scheme for Relief Educator (SRE): Overview. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                Replication

                Repeating a study to see whether the finding holds. Makel and Plucker (2014) found replications to be 0.13% of articles in the top 100 education journals, and less likely to succeed when the authors did not overlap.

                • Makel, M. C., & Plucker, J. A. (2014). Facts are more important than novelty: Replication in the education sciences. Educational Researcher, 43(6), 304–316. doi
                • Open Science Collaboration. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. doi
                Research paradigms

                The assumptions a researcher brings about what exists, what can be known and how to find out. Guba and Lincoln (1994) set out the main competing positions.

                • Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 105–117). Sage.
                • Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.). Routledge. doi
                Research–practice partnerships

                "Long-term collaborations between practitioners and researchers that are organized to investigate problems of practice and solutions for improving schools and school districts" (Coburn & Penuel, 2016).

                • Coburn, C. E., & Penuel, W. R. (2016). Research–practice partnerships in education: Outcomes, dynamics, and open questions. Educational Researcher, 45(1), 48–54. doi
                • Bryk, A. S. (2015). 2014 AERA Distinguished Lecture: Accelerating how we learn to improve. Educational Researcher, 44(9), 467–477. doi
                • Farley-Ripple, E., May, H., Karpyn, A., Tilley, K., & McDonough, K. (2018). Rethinking connections between research and practice in education: A conceptual framework. Educational Researcher, 47(4), 235–245. doi
                Resilience

                Doing well despite adversity. Research suggests it usually comes from ordinary protective resources, such as caring relationships and a supportive school, rather than rare personal traits.

                • Ministry of Education (Singapore). (2022, August 1). Strengthening students' mental well-being and improving their mental health literacy through the refreshed Character and Citizenship Education curriculum [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                • Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56(3), 227–238. doi
                Resource allocation

                Deciding how much money goes where. In nearly half of OECD systems this is decided centrally, while decisions about how resources are used inside a school are more often taken at school or local level (OECD, 2018).

                • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
                • OECD. (2017). The funding of school education: Connecting resources and learning. OECD Reviews of School Resources. OECD Publishing. doi
                • OECD. (2011). School autonomy and accountability: Are they related to student performance? (PISA in Focus No. 9). OECD Publishing. doi
                Resource development and syllabus alignment

                Building textbooks, tasks, assessments and digital materials against a particular syllabus version, and updating them when that version is revised.

                • Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1996). Reform by the book: What is—or might be—the role of curriculum materials in teacher learning and instructional reform? Educational Researcher, 25(9), 6–14. doi
                • Davis, E. A., & Krajcik, J. S. (2005). Designing educative curriculum materials to promote teacher learning. Educational Researcher, 34(3), 3–14. doi
                • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-b). Approved textbook list. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                Response to Intervention (RTI)

                The best-known form of tiered support: core teaching for all, then targeted and intensive help for students whose progress checks show they need it (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2006).

                • Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93–99. doi
                • Balu, R., Zhu, P., Doolittle, F., Schiller, E., Jenkins, J., & Gersten, R. (2015). Evaluation of response to intervention practices for elementary school reading (NCEE 2016-4000). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. ies.ed.gov
                Responsive teaching

                Teaching that changes course on evidence gathered while it happens, rather than on a plan made in advance or a report produced afterwards.

                • Wiliam, D. (2014, April). Formative assessment and contingency in the regulation of learning processes [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Philadelphia, PA, United States. fame-michigan.nyc3.cdn.digitaloceanspaces.com
                • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 5–31. doi
                • Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, day by day. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 19–24. pdo.ascd.org
                Retrieval practice

                Recalling material from memory to strengthen later recall. It looks like quizzing and is not the same as formative assessment: the purpose is the learning produced by the act of recall. The guide Designing for Learning covers it.

                • Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J. D. (2006). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory tests improves long-term retention. Psychological Science, 17(3), 249–255. doi
                • Roediger, H. L., III, & Butler, A. C. (2011). The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(1), 20–27. doi
                Returns to teaching experience

                The gains in effectiveness that come with experience: fastest early, continuing throughout a teacher's career, and larger in schools with supportive professional environments (Kraft & Papay, 2014).

                • Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2014). Can professional environments in schools promote teacher development? Explaining heterogeneity in returns to teaching experience. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(4), 476–500. doi
                • Papay, J. P., & Kraft, M. A. (2015). Productivity returns to experience in the teacher labor market: Methodological challenges and new evidence on long-term career improvement. Journal of Public Economics, 130, 105–119. doi
                • Kini, T., & Podolsky, A. (2016). Does teaching experience increase teacher effectiveness? A review of the research. Learning Policy Institute. learningpolicyinstitute.org
                Review and renewal cycles

                The published rhythm on which a system reopens each subject. In Singapore, school subjects are reviewed about once every six to eight years (Ministry of Education, 2025).

                • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, September 23). Regular curriculum reviews and industry consultation to align students' skills with future economy needs [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore's school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
                Routines

                Procedures for recurring tasks, such as entering the room, handing out devices or moving into groups, that students are taught and practise until they run with little prompting (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

                • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
                • Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Anderson, L. M. (1980). Effective classroom management at the beginning of the school year. The Elementary School Journal, 80(5), 219–231. doi
                Rubrics

                Descriptions of performance at different levels against stated criteria. Used formatively they can help, through transparency, self-assessment and reduced anxiety, but not automatically (Panadero & Jonsson, 2013).

                • Panadero, E., & Jonsson, A. (2013). The use of scoring rubrics for formative assessment purposes revisited: A review. Educational Research Review, 9, 129–144. doi
                • Jonsson, A., & Svingby, G. (2007). The use of scoring rubrics: Reliability, validity and educational consequences. Educational Research Review, 2(2), 130–144. doi
                S
                Sadler’s three conditions

                For feedback to improve work, the learner has to hold a concept of the standard being aimed for, compare their current work with that standard, and act to close the gap (Sadler, 1989).

                • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
                • Lipnevich, A. A., & Panadero, E. (2021). A review of feedback models and theories: Descriptions, definitions, and conclusions. Frontiers in Education, 6, Article 720195. doi
                Salamanca Statement

                A statement agreed by 92 governments and 25 international organisations in June 1994, which argued that regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of achieving education for all (UNESCO, 1994).

                • UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education. european-agency.org
                SAMR model

                Puentedura's four-level ladder that sorts uses of technology into substitution, augmentation, modification and redefinition. Critics note little peer-reviewed basis, missing context and a false implication that higher is better (Hamilton et al., 2016).

                • Hamilton, E. R., Rosenberg, J. M., & Akcaoglu, M. (2016). The Substitution Augmentation Modification Redefinition (SAMR) model: A critical review and suggestions for its use. TechTrends, 60(5), 433–441. doi
                Scaffolding

                Tutoring that enables a child or novice to do a task beyond their unassisted efforts, the tutor controlling the elements initially beyond the learner's capacity; help designed to be withdrawn (Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976).

                • Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89–100. doi
                • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.
                Scaffolding and fading

                A scaffold is "a temporary support that is used to assist a learner"; fading is its gradual withdrawal "as learners become more competent" (Rosenshine, 2012). The idea draws on Vygotsky's work, covered in primer C03.

                • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39. aft.org
                • Hmelo-Silver, C. E., Duncan, R. G., & Chinn, C. A. (2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem-based and inquiry learning: A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational Psychologist, 42(2), 99–107. doi
                • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 23–31. doi
                Scale

                Not only how many sites have a reform, but how deeply practice has changed, whether it survives, how far it has spread, and whether ownership has shifted from the sponsor to the school (Coburn, 2003).

                • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
                • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
                Scarborough’s reading rope

                A widely used elaboration of the simple view of reading, in which word recognition becomes increasingly automatic and language comprehension increasingly strategic as the two bundles twist together (Scarborough, 2001).

                • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
                • Reading Universe. (n.d.). Understanding the simple view of reading and Scarborough’s rope. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from readinguniverse.org
                Scenario

                A fictional, internally coherent account of one future, written to be thought with. The OECD (2020) insists scenarios “never contain predictions or recommendations”.

                • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
                • Ramírez, R., & Wilkinson, A. (2016). Strategic reframing: The Oxford scenario planning approach. Oxford University Press. doi
                • Dator, J. (2009). Alternative futures at the Manoa School. Journal of Futures Studies, 14(2), 1–18. jfsdigital.org
                Scenario Planning Plus

                The Centre for Strategic Futures' approach, which "retains Scenario Planning as its core but taps on a broader suite of tools" suited to weak signals, black swans and wild cards (Centre for Strategic Futures, 2026b).

                • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026b). Our approach. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
                • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026a). Who we are. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
                School autonomy

                The set of decisions a school may take, and how freely. Across OECD countries about a third of decisions taken at school or local level are taken in full autonomy; the rest sit inside a framework set by a higher authority (OECD, 2018).

                C15 The decision rights held at school level; across 42 countries it affected achievement negatively in developing and low-performing systems and positively in developed and high-performing ones (Hanushek et al., 2013).

                • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
                • Hanushek, E. A., Link, S., & Woessmann, L. (2013). Does school autonomy make sense everywhere? Panel estimates from PISA. Journal of Development Economics, 104, 212–232. doi
                • OECD. (2011). School autonomy and accountability: Are they related to student performance? (PISA in Focus No. 9). OECD Publishing. doi
                School budgets

                The money a school controls and the money it does not. Typically a mix of a per-student allocation, staffing paid centrally, restricted grants and locally raised funds, each with its own rules about what it may buy and when it must be spent.

                  School calendar

                  The year as published: terms or semesters, vacations, examination windows, reporting dates, camps and events. It is fixed well in advance, which makes it the first constraint on any change (Ministry of Education, 2025b).

                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025b, July 30). School terms and holidays for 2026 [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
                  School choice

                  Arrangements that let families choose between schools. The economics literature finds no systematically reliable achievement gain from vouchers, some detrimental effects, sorting under large programmes, and improvement in public schools facing competition (Epple et al., 2017).

                  • Epple, D., Romano, R. E., & Urquiola, M. (2017). School vouchers: A survey of the economics literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(2), 441–492. doi
                  • OECD. (2018). How decentralised are education systems, and what does it mean for schools? (Education Indicators in Focus No. 64). OECD Publishing. oecd.org
                  • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
                  School climate

                  The experienced quality of school life. A major review organises it around safety, relationships, teaching and learning, the institutional environment and the improvement process (Thapa et al., 2013). Climate is usually measured by survey.

                  • Thapa, A., Cohen, J., Guffey, S., & Higgins-D’Alessandro, A. (2013). A review of school climate research. Review of Educational Research, 83(3), 357–385. doi
                  • Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
                  School clusters

                  In Singapore, geographical groupings of mainstream schools whose cluster superintendents develop, guide and supervise the school leadership teams (Ministry of Education, n.d.-b).

                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-b). School clusters. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Our organisation structure: Schools Division. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  School clusters and superintendents (SG)

                  In Singapore, mainstream schools are "grouped into clusters by geographical location" under four zonal branches of the Schools Division, each cluster facilitated by a Cluster Superintendent who supervises school leadership teams and plays "a key role in personnel and financial management" (Ministry of Education, n.d.-b, n.d.-c).

                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-b). Our organisation structure: Schools Division. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). School clusters. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Our organisation structure. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  School culture

                  The shared assumptions, norms and habits that make a school recognisable. Schein (2010) distinguishes three levels: visible artefacts, espoused beliefs and values, and the basic underlying assumptions that are rarely stated and hardest to change.

                  • Schein, E. H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (4th ed.). Jossey-Bass.
                  • Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
                  School improvement planning

                  The cycle in which a school sets priorities, allocates resources and reviews progress, usually annually. Its value depends on whether the priorities reach departments and timetables, or stop at the document.

                  • Bryk, A. S., Sebring, P. B., Allensworth, E., Luppescu, S., & Easton, J. Q. (2010). Organizing schools for improvement: Lessons from Chicago. University of Chicago Press.
                  School infrastructure refresh (SG)

                  Singapore's progressive programme of changes to school buildings, announced in 2024: more flexible classrooms, refreshed libraries and laboratories, better networks, staff collaboration spaces, shared facilities, heat mitigation and barrier-free access (Ministry of Education, 2024).

                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, August 19). Enhancing school infrastructure to support the future of learning [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
                  School plan types

                  Five primary plan types, ranging from the traditional classroom through various degrees of convertibility to permanently open plans; the most open are cheaper to build but not the most agile (Dovey & Fisher, 2014).

                  • Dovey, K., & Fisher, K. (2014). Designing for adaptation: The school as socio-spatial assemblage. The Journal of Architecture, 19(1), 43–63. doi
                  • Mahat, M., Bradbeer, C., Byers, T., & Imms, W. (2018). Innovative learning environments and teacher change: Defining key concepts (Technical Report 3/2018). University of Melbourne, LEaRN. iletc.com.au
                  School rankings and league tables

                  Ordered public lists of schools by a performance measure. When Wales stopped publishing them, school effectiveness fell relative to England, with the loss concentrated outside the top quartile (Burgess et al., 2013).

                  • Burgess, S., Wilson, D., & Worth, J. (2013). A natural experiment in school accountability: The impact of school performance information on pupil progress. Journal of Public Economics, 106, 57–67. doi
                  • OECD. (2011). School autonomy and accountability: Are they related to student performance? (PISA in Focus No. 9). OECD Publishing. doi
                  • Figlio, D., & Loeb, S. (2011). School accountability. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 3, pp. 383–421). Elsevier. ideas.repec.org
                  School readiness

                  The idea that children should reach school with a defined set of skills and dispositions. It is a useful planning concept and a contested one, because the standard is set by the receiving institution rather than by anything about the child.

                  • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from pre-school to end of Key Stage 1 (SSU/SF/2004/01). Department for Education and Skills. dera.ioe.ac.uk
                  • Marcon, R. A. (2002). Moving up the grades: Relationship between preschool model and later school success. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 4(1). ecrp.illinois.edu
                  School self-evaluation

                  A school judging its own performance against a framework, often with external validation. Singapore's School Excellence Model is one example, adapted from a business excellence model and used for self-appraisal since 2000 (Ng, 2003).

                  • Ng, P. T. (2003). The Singapore school and the School Excellence Model. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 2(1), 27–39. doi
                  School staff developer

                  One of a Singapore school's key personnel, who plays an active role in guiding the school's professional learning teams (Academy of Singapore Teachers, n.d.-a).

                  School vouchers

                  One instrument of school choice among several; the economics literature finds the evidence insufficient to recommend widespread adoption, while multiple positive findings support continued exploration (Epple et al., 2017).

                  • Epple, D., Romano, R. E., & Urquiola, M. (2017). School vouchers: A survey of the economics literature. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(2), 441–492. doi
                  School-based curriculum development

                  Curriculum planned and made by a school for its own students, usually inside a national frame. Skilbeck (1984) is the standard account.

                  • Skilbeck, M. (1984). School-based curriculum development. Harper & Row. openlibrary.org
                  • Wu, R. T. Y. (2001, December). School-based curriculum development in career and technical education in Taiwan, Republic of China [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the Association for Career and Technical Education, New Orleans, LA, United States. files.eric.ed.gov
                  Scientific inquiry

                  The practices by which scientists ask questions, gather and interpret evidence and build explanations. Singapore’s syllabus groups these as ways of thinking and doing, nature of scientific knowledge, and science in society (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2022).

                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary Three to Six (Implementation starting with 2023 Primary Three cohort; updated January 2026). moe.gov.sg
                  • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
                  • Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497–521. doi
                  Scope and sequence

                  The list of what is covered and the order it is covered in, across a year or a phase. It answers when, not how understanding develops.

                  • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
                  • Corcoran, T., Mosher, F. A., & Rogat, A. (2009). Learning progressions in science: An evidence-based approach to reform (CPRE Research Report No. RR-63). Consortium for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
                  Score inflation

                  Rising scores on the test that carries the stakes, without a matching rise on other measures of the same learning (Koretz & Barron, 1998).

                  • Koretz, D., & Barron, S. I. (1998). The validity of gains in scores on the Kentucky Instructional Results Information System (KIRIS) (MR-1014-EDU). RAND. rand.org
                  • Koretz, D. (2008). Measuring up: What educational testing really tells us. Harvard University Press. jstor.org
                  • Koretz, D. (2017). The testing charade: Pretending to make schools better. University of Chicago Press. press.uchicago.edu
                  Screen time

                  The time spent using devices with screens. It is a blunt measure, because what a child does on the screen, and with whom, matters more than the total.

                  • Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173–182. doi
                  • Ministry of Health (Singapore). (2025). Guidance on screen use in children. moh.gov.sg
                  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (2024). Social media and adolescent health. The National Academies Press. doi
                  Second language acquisition

                  The study of how people learn an additional language. Norris and Ortega (2000) found focused instruction effective and explicit types more effective than implicit ones.

                  • Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. doi
                  • Spada, N. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 271–288). Springer. doi
                  • Ofsted. (2021d). Research review series: Languages. gov.uk
                  Seductive details

                  "Interesting but irrelevant information" added to instruction. Removing them tends to improve retention and transfer (Rey, 2012).

                  • Rey, G. D. (2012). A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect. Educational Research Review, 7(3), 216–237. doi
                  • Harp, S. F., & Mayer, R. E. (1998). How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 414–434. doi
                  Self-assessment

                  A learner judging their own work against criteria. Associated with gains in self-regulated learning and self-efficacy (Panadero et al., 2017), and dependent on the learner holding a workable idea of the standard.

                  • Panadero, E., Jonsson, A., & Botella, J. (2017). Effects of self-assessment on self-regulated learning and self-efficacy: Four meta-analyses. Educational Research Review, 22, 74–98. doi
                  • Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane-Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 199–218. doi
                  • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
                  Self-determination theory

                  The theory that motivation has a kind as well as an amount, and that intrinsic motivation thrives when three innate psychological needs, competence, autonomy and relatedness, are satisfied (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

                  • Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. doi
                  • Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. doi
                  Self-determined learning

                  Heutagogy’s central idea: the learner sets the path, the content and the assessment, and the educator supplies resources and guidance rather than direction (Blaschke, 2012).

                  • Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. ultiBASE. [Not retrievable at the time of writing; used here as reported by Blaschke (2012) and Moore (2020).]
                  • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
                  • Agonács, N., & Matos, J. F. (2019). Heutagogy and self-determined learning: A review of the published literature on the application and implementation of the theory. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 34(3), 223–240. doi
                  Self-directed learning

                  Knowles’s (1975) term for “a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (p. 18, quoted in Blaschke, 2012).

                  • Knowles, M. S. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Prentice Hall/Cambridge.
                  • Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for lifelong learning. Jossey-Bass.
                  • Blaschke, L. M. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 13(1), 56–71. doi
                  Self-efficacy

                  A person's belief that they can carry out a particular task. It grows mainly from mastery experiences (Bandura, 1977).

                  • Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215. doi
                  • Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy–value theory of achievement motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68–81. doi
                  Self-regulated learning

                  Learners setting goals, choosing strategies, monitoring progress and managing their motivation and emotions while they learn.

                  • Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. doi
                  • Zimmerman, B. J. (2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–70. doi
                  Sense-making

                  Implementation seen as each actor understanding a new policy through what they already know, so the most common outcome of an ambitious reform is partial assimilation rather than refusal (Spillane et al., 2002).

                  • Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72(3), 387–431. doi
                  • Teo, J. E., Deng, Z., Lee, C. K.-E., & Lim-Ratnam, C. (2013). Teach Less, Learn More: Lost in translation. In Z. Deng, S. Gopinathan, & C. K.-E. Lee (Eds.), Globalization and the Singapore curriculum (pp. 99–117). Springer. doi
                  Sensemaking

                  The process by which the people implementing a policy come to understand it, using what they already know and believe. Spillane, Reiser and Reimer (2002) argue that much apparent non-implementation is people faithfully enacting the version of a policy they understood.

                  • Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocusing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72(3), 387–431. doi
                  • Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations. Sage.
                  Setting

                  Grouping students by attainment for particular subjects, so a student can be in a higher set for one subject and a lower set for another. It is a form of between-class grouping.

                  • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
                  • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
                  Seventy-twenty-ten split

                  The most quoted number in workplace learning, repeated as a finding that most learning at work is informal; a review of its sources found the evidential basis weak (Clardy, 2018).

                  • Clardy, A. (2018). 70-20-10 and the dominance of informal learning: A fact in search of evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 17(2), 153–178. doi
                  Shadow education and private tuition

                  Paid tutoring in school subjects, outside school hours. Bray and Lykins (2012) call it a shadow because "much private supplementary tutoring mimics the mainstream", changing shape whenever the school curriculum does.

                  • Bray, M., & Lykins, C. (2012). Shadow education: Private supplementary tutoring and its implications for policy makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank. adb.org
                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025a, February 5). Private tuition [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2026b, February 12). Breakdown of Primary 3 to 6 students receiving private tuition by subject and median household spending [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                  Shift in reform ownership

                  Coburn’s fourth dimension: the point at which a change stops being the sponsor’s project and becomes the school’s own practice. Without it, sustainability depends on continued external attention.

                  • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
                  Signalling

                  The account that education can raise earnings by revealing pre-existing qualities to employers rather than by creating new ones; most economists accept that signalling and skill-building both operate (Spence, 1973).

                  • Spence, M. (1973). Job market signaling. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), 355–374. doi
                  • Collins, R. (1979). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. Academic Press. (Legacy edition, Columbia University Press, 2019.) doi
                  Signature pedagogies

                  The characteristic forms of teaching by which a field prepares newcomers, each with a surface, a deep and an implicit structure (Shulman, 2005).

                  • Shulman, L. S. (2005). Signature pedagogies in the professions. Daedalus, 134(3), 52–59. doi
                  Simple view of reading

                  Reading modelled as the product of decoding and language comprehension, so a weak reader is weak on one strand, the other, or both, and each case needs different teaching (Gough & Tunmer, 1986).

                  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
                  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
                  • Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department for Education and Skills.
                  Simulation-based learning

                  Practising skills or exploring systems in a model of a real situation, with or without immersive displays. With scaffolding it shows large effects in higher education (Chernikova et al., 2020).

                  • Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499–541. doi
                  Single-point rubrics

                  A rubric that describes only the standard, with space either side for what exceeds it and what falls short. It keeps the criteria without implying that quality comes in fixed bands.

                  • Panadero, E., & Jonsson, A. (2013). The use of scoring rubrics for formative assessment purposes revisited: A review. Educational Research Review, 9, 129–144. doi
                  Sites of curriculum making

                  Curriculum making framed as intertwined sites of activity, supra, macro, meso, micro and nano, from international bodies to teachers with students, treated as types of activity rather than institutional functions (Priestley et al., 2021).

                  • Priestley, M., Philippou, S., Alvunger, D., & Soini, T. (2021). Curriculum making: A conceptual framing. In M. Priestley, D. Alvunger, S. Philippou, & T. Soini (Eds.), Curriculum making in Europe: Policy and practice within and across diverse contexts (pp. 1–27). Emerald. doi
                  • Garrard, K. A., Cairns, R., Weinmann, M., Hannigan, S., & Phillips, F. (2024). Engaging diverse voices across sites of curriculum making in Australia: Realities and possibilities. The Australian Educational Researcher, 52, 75–91. doi
                  Situational analysis

                  The first stage in Skilbeck's model: an analysis of external factors such as parental expectations and employer requirements, and internal ones such as teacher skills and resources (Wu, 2001).

                  • Skilbeck, M. (1984). School-based curriculum development. Harper & Row. openlibrary.org
                  • Wu, R. T. Y. (2001, December). School-based curriculum development in career and technical education in Taiwan, Republic of China [Paper presentation]. Annual Meeting of the Association for Career and Technical Education, New Orleans, LA, United States. files.eric.ed.gov
                  Six properties of classrooms

                  Doyle's description of classrooms as multidimensional, simultaneous, immediate, unpredictable, public and historical. Each property limits what a teacher, or a tool, can ask of the room (Doyle, 1986).

                  • Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). Macmillan.
                  • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
                  • Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
                  Skills-based hiring

                  Recruiting against demonstrated skills rather than qualification requirements. Widely announced, less widely practised, and so far thinly evidenced on whether it changes who actually gets hired.

                  • Spence, M. (1973). Job market signaling. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 87(3), 355–374. doi
                  • Collins, R. (1979). The credential society: An historical sociology of education and stratification. Academic Press. (Legacy edition, Columbia University Press, 2019.) doi
                  Social capital

                  In Bourdieu's (1986) sense, "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition": who a family can call on, and what that is worth.

                  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. marxists.org
                  • Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95–S120. doi
                  Social constructivism

                  A view, associated with Vygotsky, that knowledge is built through social interaction and shared tools such as language. It underpins much work on dialogue and collaboration. Primer C03 covers the zone of proximal development.

                  • Alexander, R. (2020). A dialogic teaching companion. Routledge. doi
                  • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
                  Social gradient

                  Outcomes rising steadily across the whole range of social position rather than dividing into two groups, which is why a programme aimed only at the bottom leaves most of the gradient in place (Marmot, 2010).

                  • Marmot, M. (2010). Fair society, healthy lives: The Marmot Review. Institute of Health Equity. instituteofhealthequity.org
                  • OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
                  • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. doi
                  Social mobility

                  Movement between social positions across a lifetime or between generations. Education is the route most societies rely on for it, which is why the strength of the link between origins and school results matters politically as well as educationally.

                  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. marxists.org
                  • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. doi
                  Social presence

                  The sense of being with other people in a mediated environment. Slater and Wilbur (1997) discuss presence in shared environments.

                  • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
                  Social reproduction

                  The process by which the social order of one generation is reproduced in the next, with schooling as one of the mechanisms. Bourdieu (1986) is the standard reference; the claim is about how institutions recognise resources, not about the worth of families.

                  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood. marxists.org
                  • Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.-C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society and culture (R. Nice, Trans.). Sage.
                  • Bowles, S., & Gintis, H. (1976). Schooling in capitalist America: Educational reform and the contradictions of economic life. Basic Books. doi
                  Social-emotional learning

                  The process of building the skills to understand and manage emotions, set goals, show empathy, maintain relationships and make responsible decisions (CASEL, n.d.).

                  • Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. doi
                  • CASEL. (n.d.). What is the CASEL framework? Retrieved September 17, 2026, from casel.org
                  • Ministry of Education (Singapore). (n.d.-a). Social and emotional learning. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                  Socialisation

                  The domain of purpose concerned with how education makes people part of existing social, cultural and political orders, whether by design or as a side effect (Biesta, 2009).

                  • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
                  • Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75–87. doi
                  Socio-economic status

                  A composite of a household's income, occupation and education, usually measured indirectly. PISA uses an index of economic, social and cultural status (ESCS) built from parental occupation and education and home possessions (OECD, 2023). Sirin (2005) shows that results depend heavily on which version is used.

                  • Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. doi
                  • OECD. (2023). PISA 2022 results (Volume I): The state of learning and equity in education. OECD Publishing. doi
                  • Coleman, J. S., Campbell, E. Q., Hobson, C. J., McPartland, J., Mood, A. M., Weinfeld, F. D., & York, R. L. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. National Center for Educational Statistics. eric.ed.gov
                  Soft skills

                  Personality traits, goals, motivations and preferences that are valued in the labour market, in school and in many other domains, and that achievement tests do not adequately capture (Heckman & Kautz, 2012).

                  • Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. doi
                  • Jackson, C. K. (2018). What do test scores miss? The importance of teacher effects on non–test score outcomes. Journal of Political Economy, 126(5), 2072–2107. doi
                  SOLO taxonomy

                  A taxonomy that classifies the structure of a response rather than the verb in the objective, running pre-structural, uni-structural, multi-structural, relational and extended abstract (Biggs & Collis, 1982).

                  • Biggs, J. B., & Collis, K. F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy (structure of the observed learning outcome). Academic Press.
                  • Korkmaz, F., & Ünsal, S. (2017). Analysis of attainments and evaluation questions in sociology curriculum according to the SOLO taxonomy. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 69, 75–92. doi
                  Sources of validity evidence

                  Test content, response processes, internal structure, relations to other variables and the consequences of testing: a menu to draw from according to which assumption in the argument is shakiest (AERA et al., 2014).

                  • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                  Space as the "third teacher"

                  An idea from the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education: after the adults, the environment itself teaches, so it should be arranged with care (Strong-Wilson & Ellis, 2007).

                  • Strong-Wilson, T., & Ellis, J. (2007). Children and place: Reggio Emilia’s environment as third teacher. Theory Into Practice, 46(1), 40–47. doi
                  • Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (Eds.). (2012). The hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia experience in transformation (3rd ed.). Praeger.
                  Space–pedagogy–outcome linkage

                  The chain by which a space affects learning, mostly by shaping what teachers and learners do. Blackmore et al. (2011) stress that the relationship is not linear, and that there is little direct evidence linking spaces to outcomes.

                  • Blackmore, J., Bateman, D., Loughlin, J., O’Mara, J., & Aranda, G. (2011). Research into the connection between built learning spaces and student outcomes (Education Policy and Research Division Paper No. 22). Department of Education and Early Childhood Development, Victoria. education.vic.gov.au
                  • Mahat, M., Bradbeer, C., Byers, T., & Imms, W. (2018). Innovative learning environments and teacher change: Defining key concepts (Technical Report 3/2018). University of Melbourne, LEaRN. iletc.com.au
                  • Woolner, P., Hall, E., Higgins, S., McCaughey, C., & Wall, K. (2007). A sound foundation? What we know about the impact of environments on learning and the implications for Building Schools for the Future. Oxford Review of Education, 33(1), 47–70. doi
                  Spatial ability

                  A cognitive capacity to represent, transform and reason about shapes and spatial relations, measured by tests. It predicts STEM attainment (Wai et al., 2009).

                  • Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817–835. doi
                  • Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. doi
                  • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
                  Spatial awareness (body in space)

                  A sensorimotor sense of where one's body is and how it moves through space. Different from spatial ability; see C03 and C12.

                    Spatial language

                    Words for shape, size, location and direction, such as "tall", "curvy" or "edge". Children who hear and use more of them tend to do better on later spatial tasks (Pruden et al., 2011).

                    • Pruden, S. M., Levine, S. C., & Huttenlocher, J. (2011). Children’s spatial thinking: Does talk about the spatial world matter? Developmental Science, 14(6), 1417–1430. doi
                    • Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Newcombe, N. S., Filipowicz, A. T., & Chang, A. (2014). Deconstructing building blocks: Preschoolers’ spatial assembly performance relates to early mathematical skills. Child Development, 85(3), 1062–1076. doi
                    Spatial thinking

                    Reasoning based on "a constructive amalgam of three elements: concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning", used within disciplines (National Research Council, 2006).

                    • National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially: GIS as a support system in the K–12 curriculum. National Academies Press. doi
                    • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
                    Spatial thinking in geography and GIS

                    Reasoning with maps, scale, location and spatial data, including geographic information systems, as a geographer’s practice (Ofsted, 2021c). Spatial ability as a psychological construct is covered in C09.

                    • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
                    • National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially. National Academies Press.
                    Spatial training and transfer

                    Practice designed to improve spatial skill. Gains are durable and transfer to untrained spatial tasks (Uttal et al., 2013); transfer to mathematics is smaller and larger when closely aligned (Hawes et al., 2022).

                    • Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. doi
                    • Hawes, Z. C. K., Gilligan-Lee, K. A., & Mix, K. S. (2022). Effects of spatial training on mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 112–137. doi
                    • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
                    Spatial visualisation

                    Imagining complex, multi-step changes to shapes, such as folding a net into a solid. It is a form of intrinsic, dynamic spatial skill.

                    • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
                    Special educational needs (SEN)

                    Learning needs that call for support beyond what is usually provided in class. Definitions and recording rules differ widely between systems, so rates are hard to compare.

                    Spiral curriculum

                    A design in which the same big ideas are revisited at successive levels with increasing depth, after Bruner (1960). Singapore’s primary science syllabus states one explicitly (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2022).

                    • Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Harvard University Press.
                    • Smith, M. K. (2002). Jerome S. Bruner and the process of education. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from infed.org
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary three to six (Updated January 2026). Curriculum Planning and Development Division. moe.gov.sg
                    Spread

                    Coburn's third dimension of scale: how widely a reform travels. It is countable, cheap to report and the least informative of the four (Coburn, 2003).

                    • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
                    Stackable credentials

                    Short qualifications designed so that completing several adds up to a larger award. The design depends on a qualifications framework that makes the units comparable, and on institutions agreeing to honour them.

                    • OECD. (2023). Micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability: Uses and possibilities (OECD Education Policy Perspectives). OECD Publishing. doi
                    • Allais, S. (2014). Selling out education: National qualifications frameworks and the neglect of knowledge. SensePublishers. doi
                    Stages of concern

                    The first CBAM instrument: seven categories of concern about an innovation, running from unconcerned and informational through personal and management to consequence, collaboration and refocusing (SEDL, n.d.-a).

                    • Hall, G. E., & Hord, S. M. (2019). Implementing change: Patterns, principles, and potholes (5th ed.). Pearson.
                    • SEDL. (n.d.-a). Stages of Concern, a dimension of the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from sedl.org
                    Stages of teaching expertise

                    Berliner's five stages, adapted from the Dreyfus model of skill: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and expert. Competence is a realistic goal for most teachers; expertise is achieved by few (Berliner, 1988).

                    • Berliner, D. C. (1988). The development of expertise in pedagogy [Charles W. Hunt Memorial Lecture]. American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. eric.ed.gov
                    • Berliner, D. C. (2004). Describing the behavior and documenting the accomplishments of expert teachers. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(3), 200–212. doi
                    Stakeholder and industry consultation

                    Drawing employers, sector agencies, teachers, academics and parents into a review, so that scope and content answer to more than the writers' own view.

                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, September 23). Regular curriculum reviews and industry consultation to align students' skills with future economy needs [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                    • Garrard, K. A., Cairns, R., Weinmann, M., Hannigan, S., & Phillips, F. (2024). Engaging diverse voices across sites of curriculum making in Australia: Realities and possibilities. The Australian Educational Researcher, 52, 75–91. doi
                    • OECD. (2026). Ecosystems approach to curriculum change (OECD Education Policy Perspectives No. 135). OECD Publishing. doi
                    Stakeholder and participatory evaluation

                    Approaches that involve the people with a stake in a programme in framing questions, interpreting findings or running the evaluation. Involvement is the factor most consistently linked to whether evaluations get used (Johnson et al., 2009).

                    • Johnson, K., Greenseid, L. O., Toal, S. A., King, J. A., Lawrenz, F., & Volkov, B. (2009). Research on evaluation use: A review of the empirical literature from 1986 to 2005. American Journal of Evaluation, 30(3), 377–410. doi
                    • Fetterman, D. M. (1994). Empowerment evaluation. Evaluation Practice, 15(1), 1–15. doi
                    Stakeholder engagement

                    Consultation with the people a policy affects, before and during its design. Done well it improves the instrument and builds the translators a rollout needs; done as a formality it produces consent without information.

                    • Elmore, R. F. (1979). Backward mapping: Implementation research and policy decisions. Political Science Quarterly, 94(4), 601–616. doi
                    Standard error of measurement

                    "The standard deviation of measurement errors that affect the scores of test takers at a specified test score level" (AERA et al., 2014). It converts reliability into the units of the test, which is what makes it useful at a boundary.

                    • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                    Standard setting

                    "The process, often judgment based, of setting cut scores using a structured procedure" that maps scores onto described performance levels (AERA et al., 2014). Cizek and Bunch (2007) describe the main methods.

                    • Cizek, G. J., & Bunch, M. B. (2007). Standard setting: A guide to establishing and evaluating performance standards on tests. Sage. sagepub.com
                    • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                    STAR experiment

                    Tennessee's experiment that randomly assigned students to small classes of 13 to 17 or regular classes of 22 to 25. Test scores rose, more for minority students and those on free lunch (Krueger, 1999).

                    • Krueger, A. B. (1999). Experimental estimates of education production functions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(2), 497–532. doi
                    • Filges, T., Sonne-Schmidt, C. S., & Nielsen, B. C. V. (2018). Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1). doi
                    • Schanzenbach, D. W. (2014). Does class size matter? National Education Policy Center. nepc.colorado.edu
                    STEM and STEAM

                    Labels for grouping science, technology, engineering and mathematics, with the arts added in STEAM. They describe arrangements of curriculum time, not a method, and their measured effects vary widely (Becker & Park, 2011).

                    • Becker, K., & Park, K. (2011). Effects of integrative approaches among science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects on students’ learning: A preliminary meta-analysis. Journal of STEM Education, 12(5–6), 23–37. eric.ed.gov
                    • National Academy of Engineering & National Research Council. (2014). STEM integration in K-12 education: Status, prospects, and an agenda for research (M. Honey, G. Pearson, & H. Schweingruber, Eds.). National Academies Press. doi
                    Stereotype threat

                    Being at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group, which was shown in the laboratory to depress test performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995). A large pre-registered school study found no such effect on girls in mathematics (Flore et al., 2018), so the size and generality of the effect are contested.

                    • Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. doi
                    • Flore, P. C., Mulder, J., & Wicherts, J. M. (2018). The influence of gender stereotype threat on mathematics test scores of Dutch high school students: A registered report. Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology, 3(2), 140–174. doi
                    Strands of mathematical proficiency

                    Five interwoven and interdependent strands in the development of proficiency in mathematics: conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning and productive disposition (Kilpatrick et al., 2001).

                    • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
                    Streaming and tracking

                    Placing students in different classes, courses or schools by attainment across most or all subjects. "Tracking" is the common US term. Early tracking is associated with greater inequality (Hanushek & Wößmann, 2006).

                    • Hanushek, E. A., & Wößmann, L. (2006). Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences-in-differences evidence across countries. The Economic Journal, 116(510), C63–C76. doi
                    • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
                    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
                    Street-level bureaucracy

                    Lipsky's (1980) term for public services delivered by front-line staff — teachers, police officers, social workers — who must apply general rules to particular people with fewer resources than the demand, and whose routines and rationing become the operating policy.

                    • Lipsky, M. (1980). Street-level bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the individual in public services. Russell Sage Foundation.
                    • Weatherley, R., & Lipsky, M. (1977). Street-level bureaucrats and institutional innovation: Implementing special-education reform. Harvard Educational Review, 47(2), 171–197. doi
                    Student voice

                    Learners expressing views on matters that affect them and having those views taken seriously, as Article 12 of the UN Convention requires (United Nations General Assembly, 1989).

                    • United Nations General Assembly. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. ohchr.org
                    • UN Committee on the Rights of the Child. (2021). General comment No. 25 (2021) on children's rights in relation to the digital environment (CRC/C/GC/25). ohchr.org
                    Subject pedagogy (Fachdidaktik)

                    The continental European field devoted to teaching a particular subject, including what is worth teaching and why. Kansanen (2009) treats it as broader than pedagogical content knowledge.

                    • Kansanen, P. (2009). Subject-matter didactics as a central knowledge base for teachers, or should it be called pedagogical content knowledge? Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 17(1), 29–39. doi
                    • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
                    Subjectification

                    The domain of purpose concerned with people coming to exist as subjects of initiative and responsibility, rather than only as members of an order (Biesta, 2015).

                    • Biesta, G. (2015). What is education for? On good education, teacher judgement, and educational professionalism. European Journal of Education, 50(1), 75–87. doi
                    • Biesta, G. (2009). Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), 33–46. doi
                    Substantive and disciplinary knowledge

                    The pair of terms now used across subject curricula: what a subject holds to be established, and how it establishes it (Ofsted, 2021a, 2021b). The distinction goes back to Schwab, and reached teaching through Shulman (1986).

                    • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
                    • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
                    • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
                    Success criteria

                    What counts as having done it well, shared with students so they can judge their own work. Primer C13 covers success criteria and feedback in depth.

                    C13 What a good piece of this work would contain or show, stated so that a student can check their own draft against it. Distinct from instructions, which say what to do.

                    • Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (2005). Understanding by Design (2nd ed.). ASCD.
                    • Wiliam, D., & Thompson, M. (2008). Integrating assessment with learning: What will it take to make it work? In C. A. Dwyer (Ed.), The future of assessment: Shaping teaching and learning (pp. 53–82). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. doi
                    • Sadler, D. R. (1989). Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems. Instructional Science, 18(2), 119–144. doi
                    Summer learning loss

                    The idea that skills stall or slip over long holidays and that gaps therefore widen outside term time. The seasonal evidence has been revised: von Hippel et al. (2018) found most inequality already present at school entry, with term time tending to compress it.

                    • Downey, D. B., von Hippel, P. T., & Broh, B. A. (2004). Are schools the great equalizer? Cognitive inequality during the summer months and the school year. American Sociological Review, 69(5), 613–635. doi
                    • von Hippel, P. T., Workman, J., & Downey, D. B. (2018). Inequality in reading and math skills forms mainly before kindergarten: A replication, and partial correction, of “Are schools the great equalizer?” Sociology of Education, 91(4), 323–357. doi
                    Sustainability

                    Coburn’s second dimension of scale: whether a change persists once the funding, the champion or the attention moves on.

                    • Coburn, C. E. (2003). Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change. Educational Researcher, 32(6), 3–12. doi
                    • Elmore, R. F. (1996). Getting to scale with good educational practice. Harvard Educational Review, 66(1), 1–26. doi
                    Sustained shared thinking

                    The strongest practice EPPE identified in effective pre-school settings, used to extend children’s learning; it is adult-led as well as child-led, with staff who talk with children rather than at them (Sylva et al., 2004).

                    • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2004). The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Findings from pre-school to end of Key Stage 1 (SSU/SF/2004/01). Department for Education and Skills. dera.ioe.ac.uk
                    • Sylva, K., Melhuish, E., Sammons, P., Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Taggart, B. (2011). Pre-school quality and educational outcomes at age 11: Low quality has little benefit. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 9(2), 109–124. doi
                    Syllabus

                    The document for a subject and level: aims, content, sometimes suggested approaches and assessment. It is the most visible part of the intended curriculum, not the whole of it.

                    • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
                    • Smith, M. K. (2000). What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. (Original work published 1996). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from infed.org
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary three to six (Updated January 2026). Curriculum Planning and Development Division. moe.gov.sg
                    Syllabus review

                    Reopening a syllabus on its cycle to decide what is kept, cut or rewritten. In Singapore this sits with the Curriculum Planning and Development Division (Ministry of Education, n.d.-a).

                    • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore's school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Curriculum Planning and Development Division. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, September 23). Regular curriculum reviews and industry consultation to align students' skills with future economy needs [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                    Syllabus review committees

                    The groups convened to do that work, usually mixing ministry officers, subject specialists and teachers. Singapore's 1988 Mathematics Syllabus Review Committee is a documented example (Kaur, 2014).

                    • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore's school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
                    System leadership

                    Leadership exercised beyond one’s own school. "System leaders are those Heads or Principals who are willing to shoulder system wide roles in order to support the improvement of other schools as well as their own" (Hopkins & Harris, 2023).

                    • Hopkins, D., & Harris, A. (2023). System leadership. In R. J. Tierney, F. Rizvi, & K. Erkican (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education (4th ed., Vol. 4). Elsevier. doi
                    • Fullan, M. (2011). Choosing the wrong drivers for whole system reform (Seminar Series Paper No. 204). Centre for Strategic Education. michaelfullan.ca
                    System-changing

                    A policy instrument defined as "the transfer of official authority among individuals and agencies to alter the system by which public goods and services are delivered" (McDonnell & Elmore, 1987b). It assumes existing institutions cannot produce the result under existing incentives.

                    • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987b). Alternative policy instruments (Joint Note Series JNE-03). Center for Policy Research in Education. files.eric.ed.gov
                    • McDonnell, L. M., & Elmore, R. F. (1987a). Getting the job done: Alternative policy instruments. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 9(2), 133–152. doi
                    Systematic review

                    A review that states its search, inclusion criteria and appraisal method in advance so that it can be checked and repeated. It may or may not include a meta-analysis.

                    • Slavin, R. E. (2008). Perspectives on evidence-based research in education—What works? Issues in synthesizing educational program evaluations. Educational Researcher, 37(1), 5–14. doi
                    T
                    Table of specifications

                    A blueprint showing how many items or marks each topic and each kind of thinking receives. Reading one tells you what the paper can and cannot support a claim about.

                    • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                    TALIS

                    The OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey of teachers and school leaders. TALIS 2024 was "the fourth cycle of the study since its inception in 2008", with 55 systems taking part (Ministry of Education, 2025; OECD, n.d.-b).

                    • OECD. (n.d.-b). Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from oecd.org
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025, October 7). Singapore teachers embrace digital technologies and benefit from strong professional development: OECD TALIS 2024 study [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
                    Targeted and proportionate universalism

                    Targeting concentrates support on those below a threshold. Proportionate universalism offers support to everyone "with a scale and intensity that is proportionate to the level of disadvantage" (Marmot, 2010), which avoids both the cliff edge and the thin universal offer.

                    Task-integrated movement

                    Bodily activity that is part of the learning task and expresses its content, as opposed to incidental movement (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018).

                    • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
                    Teach Less, Learn More (SG)

                    Singapore’s 2005 initiative, following Lee Hsien Loong’s 2004 National Day Rally line "We’ve got to teach less to our students so that they will learn more", which trimmed content to make room for deeper learning (Lee, 2004; Tan et al., 2017).

                    • Lee, H. L. (2004, August 22). National Day Rally 2004 [Speech]. Prime Minister’s Office Singapore. pmo.gov.sg
                    • Tan, J. P.-L., Koh, E., Chan, M., Costes-Onishi, P., & Hung, D. (2017). Advancing 21st century competencies in Singapore. Asia Society. asiasociety.org
                    Teacher agency

                    Teachers acting with judgement to shape their work. In the ecological view, it is something teachers achieve in particular settings, not a fixed trait (Biesta et al., 2015; Priestley et al., 2015).

                    C11 Something teachers achieve in a setting rather than a matter of permission alone, shaped by what they bring, what the culture allows and what the structures make possible (Priestley et al., 2015).

                    • Biesta, G., Priestley, M., & Robinson, S. (2015). The role of beliefs in teacher agency. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 624–640. doi
                    • Priestley, M., Biesta, G., & Robinson, S. (2015). Teacher agency: An ecological approach. Bloomsbury Academic.
                    Teacher as researcher

                    Stenhouse's (1975) proposal that teachers test curriculum proposals in their own classrooms, since a curriculum is a hypothesis rather than an instruction.

                    • Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. Heinemann.
                    • Smith, M. K. (2000). Curriculum theory and practice. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. infed.org
                    Teacher beliefs

                    Teachers' views about learning, teaching, students and subjects. They shape practice and are shaped by it, and they can act as second-order barriers to change (Ertmer, 1999).

                    • Ertmer, P. A. (1999). Addressing first- and second-order barriers to change: Strategies for technology integration. Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), 47–61. doi
                    • Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255–284. doi
                    • Biesta, G., Priestley, M., & Robinson, S. (2015). The role of beliefs in teacher agency. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 624–640. doi
                    Teacher career cycle

                    Huberman's account of a teaching career, from survival and discovery through stabilisation, experimentation or reassessment, and later serenity or conservatism, to disengagement, with the caution that careers do not follow one path (Huberman, 1989).

                    • Huberman, M. (1989). The professional life cycle of teachers. Teachers College Record, 91(1), 31–57. doi
                    Teacher coaching

                    Follow-up support in the classroom where the work happens. Across 60 causal studies it moved instruction by about half a standard deviation, with effects thinning as programmes grow (Kraft et al., 2018).

                    • Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational Research, 88(4), 547–588. doi
                    • Joyce, B., & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development (3rd ed.). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
                    • Kraft, M. A., & Blazar, D. (2018, July 31). Taking teacher coaching to scale. Education Next, 18(4). educationnext.org
                    Teacher collaboration

                    Teachers working together, from sharing materials to team teaching and joint professional learning. Supportive, collegial environments are linked to faster improvement (Kraft & Papay, 2014).

                    • Kraft, M. A., & Papay, J. P. (2014). Can professional environments in schools promote teacher development? Explaining heterogeneity in returns to teaching experience. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36(4), 476–500. doi
                    • Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (2012). Professional capital: Transforming teaching in every school. Teachers College Press.
                    Teacher dashboards

                    Displays that summarise student activity and progress for a teacher, sometimes in real time. See C15 for dashboards and school data.

                    • Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2018). Student learning benefits of a mixed-reality teacher awareness tool in AI-enhanced classrooms. In C. P. Rosé et al. (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education: AIED 2018 (pp. 154–168). Springer. doi
                    • Kaliisa, R., Misiejuk, K., López-Pernas, S., Khalil, M., & Saqr, M. (2024). Have learning analytics dashboards lived up to the hype? A systematic review of impact on students’ achievement, motivation, participation and attitude. In Proceedings of the 14th Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference (pp. 295–304). ACM. doi
                    • Prieto, L. P. (2015). Classroom technology design guidelines: A focused survey. In Proceedings of the Orchestrated Collaborative Classroom Workshop 2015 (CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 1411). ceur-ws.org
                    Teacher efficacy

                    A teacher's belief in their capacity to bring about learning. Self-efficacy with a tool is one of the variables in technology change (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010).

                    • Ertmer, P. A., & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42(3), 255–284. doi
                    • Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.
                    • Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805. doi
                    Teacher identity

                    How teachers understand themselves as professionals: what kind of teacher they are and want to be. Changes that seem to question that identity tend to meet stronger doubts.

                    • Beijaard, D., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2004). Reconsidering research on teachers' professional identity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 20(2), 107–128. doi
                    Teacher mind frames and spatial practice

                    In the ILETC project, mind frames are "the ways that a teacher actively thinks to guide their professional practice" (Mahat et al., 2018). Spatial practice is how teachers actually use a space: where they stand, how they group students, what they move.

                    • Mahat, M., Bradbeer, C., Byers, T., & Imms, W. (2018). Innovative learning environments and teacher change: Defining key concepts (Technical Report 3/2018). University of Melbourne, LEaRN. iletc.com.au
                    Teacher-proof materials

                    Curriculum or technology designed to work the same way whatever the teacher does. The idea treats teachers as operators, which the history of classroom technology suggests rarely works (Cuban, 1986).

                    • Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
                    Teachers as curriculum makers

                    The view that teachers do not merely deliver a curriculum but make the version students meet, through interpretation, sequencing and repair (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988; Clandinin & Connelly, 1992).

                    • Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1992). Teacher as curriculum maker. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 363–401). Macmillan.
                    • Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners: Narratives of experience. Teachers College Press.
                    • Priestley, M., Philippou, S., Alvunger, D., & Soini, T. (2021). Curriculum making: A conceptual framing. In M. Priestley, D. Alvunger, S. Philippou, & T. Soini (Eds.), Curriculum making in Europe: Policy and practice within and across diverse contexts (pp. 1–27). Emerald. doi
                    Teaching for understanding

                    An approach, and a Project Zero framework, for designing teaching so that students can use knowledge flexibly in new situations (Project Zero, n.d.-a; Wiske, 1998).

                    • Wiske, M. S. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. Jossey-Bass.
                    • Perkins, D., & Blythe, T. (1994). Putting understanding up front. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 4–7. ascd.org
                    • Project Zero. (n.d.-a). Teaching for understanding. Harvard Graduate School of Education. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from pz.harvard.edu
                    Teaching machines

                    Mechanical devices that present questions and give immediate feedback, from Pressey's in the 1920s to Skinner's in the 1950s (Benjamin, 1988).

                    • Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1988). A history of teaching machines. American Psychologist, 43(9), 703–712. doi
                    • Skinner, B. F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128(3330), 969–977. doi
                    • Watters, A. (2021). Teaching machines: The history of personalized learning. MIT Press.
                    Teaching to the test

                    Directing teaching towards the sample of the domain that the test happens to contain. It raises scores; whether it raises learning depends on how well the test samples the domain (Koretz, 2008).

                    • Koretz, D. (2008). Measuring up: What educational testing really tells us. Harvard University Press. jstor.org
                    • Au, W. (2007). High-stakes testing and curricular control: A qualitative metasynthesis. Educational Researcher, 36(5), 258–267. doi
                    • Koretz, D. (2017). The testing charade: Pretending to make schools better. University of Chicago Press. press.uchicago.edu
                    Technical and vocational education and training

                    The international term for education preparing people for defined occupations, in schools, colleges and workplaces. It carries most of the world’s post-school learners and, in most countries, most of the status problem (Wolf, 2011).

                    • Wolf, A. (2011). Review of vocational education: The Wolf report (DFE-00031-2011). Department for Education. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
                    • Allais, S. (2014). Selling out education: National qualifications frameworks and the neglect of knowledge. SensePublishers. doi
                    Techno-solutionism

                    The habit of answering structural problems with a product. A system can adopt every tool available and leave the distribution of teachers, money and time exactly as it was.

                    • Reich, J. (2020). Failure to disrupt: Why technology alone can’t transform education. Harvard University Press.
                    • OECD. (2015). Students, computers and learning: Making the connection. OECD Publishing. doi
                    • Morozov, E. (2013). To save everything, click here: The folly of technological solutionism. PublicAffairs.
                    Technological determinism

                    The view that technology drives social change largely by itself. This primer argues that schools shape technologies at least as much as the reverse.

                    • Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology since 1920. Teachers College Press.
                    • Toyama, K. (2015a). Geek heresy: Rescuing social change from the cult of technology. PublicAffairs.
                    Tenders

                    The route for larger purchases, in which a notice is published, bids are evaluated against published criteria and the award is recorded publicly. In Singapore this applies above S$90,000, with a lighter route up to S$1 million (Ministry of Finance, 2026). Check current policy.

                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2026). Procurement processes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    Test-based accountability

                    School performance accountability resting on standardised student testing, public reporting and rewards or sanctions; it produces gains and distortions together, because effort moves to what is measured (Figlio & Loeb, 2011).

                    • Figlio, D., & Loeb, S. (2011). School accountability. In E. A. Hanushek, S. Machin, & L. Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the economics of education (Vol. 3, pp. 383–421). Elsevier. ideas.repec.org
                    • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
                    • Bevan, G., & Hood, C. (2006). What’s measured is what matters: Targets and gaming in the English public health care system. Public Administration, 84(3), 517–538. doi
                    The whole child

                    An approach, promoted by ASCD from 2007, in which each child is healthy, safe, engaged, supported and challenged, instead of a narrow focus on academic achievement (ASCD, n.d.).

                    • ASCD. (n.d.). The whole child approach to education. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from files.ascd.org
                    Theory of change

                    The explanation of why each step in the chain should follow from the one before, with its assumptions, risks and context made explicit (Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, 2021).

                    • Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat. (2021, March 22). Theory-based approaches to evaluation: Concepts and practices. Government of Canada. canada.ca
                    • Weiss, C. H. (1997b). How can theory-based evaluation make greater headway? Evaluation Review, 21(4), 501–524. doi
                    • Weiss, C. H. (1997a). Theory-based evaluation: Past, present, and future. New Directions for Evaluation, 1997(76), 41–55. doi
                    Thermal comfort

                    Whether people feel neither too warm nor too cold. In one set of classroom experiments, cooling rooms from 25°C to 20°C made children faster at schoolwork (Wargocki & Wyon, 2007).

                    • Wargocki, P., & Wyon, D. P. (2007). The effects of moderately raised classroom temperatures and classroom ventilation rate on the performance of schoolwork by children (RP-1257). HVAC&R Research, 13(2), 193–220. doi
                    • Wargocki, P., Porras-Salazar, J. A., Contreras-Espinoza, S., & Bahnfleth, W. (2020). The relationships between classroom air quality and children’s performance in school. Building and Environment, 173, Article 106749. doi
                    • Barrett, P., Davies, F., Zhang, Y., & Barrett, L. (2015a). The impact of classroom design on pupils’ learning: Final results of a holistic, multi-level analysis. Building and Environment, 89, 118–133. doi
                    Third space

                    Soja (1996) uses thirdspace for space that is at once lived, planned and imagined. In education, Gutiérrez (2008) describes a collective third space where students' everyday and academic knowledge meet.

                    • Soja, E. W. (1996). Thirdspace: Journeys to Los Angeles and other real-and-imagined places. Blackwell. wiley.com
                    • Gutiérrez, K. D. (2008). Developing a sociocritical literacy in the third space. Reading Research Quarterly, 43(2), 148–164. doi
                    Three Horizons

                    A framework that separates the pattern that currently dominates and is losing its fit (H1), the turbulent innovations tried in response (H2), and the emerging pattern growing at the fringe (H3) (Sharpe et al., 2016).

                    • Sharpe, B., Hodgson, A., Leicester, G., Lyon, A., & Fazey, I. (2016). Three horizons: A pathways practice for transformation. Ecology and Society, 21(2), Article 47. doi
                    Threshold concepts

                    Ideas that act "akin to a portal, opening up a new and previously inaccessible way of thinking about something": typically transformative, irreversible, integrative, bounded and troublesome (Meyer & Land, 2003, 2005).

                    • Meyer, J. H. F., & Land, R. (2003). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge: Linkages to ways of thinking and practising within the disciplines (ETL Project Occasional Report No. 4). University of Edinburgh.
                    • Meyer, J. H. F., & Land, R. (2005). Threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge (2): Epistemological considerations and a conceptual framework for teaching and learning. Higher Education, 49(3), 373–388. doi
                    Tight–loose

                    A design rule that holds a few central principles fixed while allowing local accommodation elsewhere, but only where that accommodation does not conflict with the intervention's theory of action (Thompson & Wiliam, 2007).

                    • Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2007, April 9–13). Tight but loose: A conceptual framework for scaling up school reforms [Paper presentation]. Annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL, United States. dylanwiliam.org
                    Time on task

                    The share of time students spend actively engaged in the learning activity. It is one component of academic learning time, alongside allocated time and success rate (Fisher et al., 2015).

                    • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
                    • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
                    Timetabling

                    The allocation of teachers, classes, rooms and periods across a week. It encodes priorities: which subjects get double periods, which teams share free periods, and whether a group of teachers can ever meet at the same time.

                    TIMSS

                    The IEA’s Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, at the fourth and eighth grades. It was "inaugurated in 1995" and has run every four years since; TIMSS 2023 covered 64 countries and six benchmarking systems (TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center, 2024).

                    • TIMSS & PIRLS International Study Center. (2024). TIMSS 2023 international results in mathematics and science. Boston College. timss2023.org
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2024, December 4). TIMSS 2023: Singapore students demonstrate strong foundations and consistent good performance in mathematics and science [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
                    Tinkering

                    Gradual, incremental change that adapts reforms to schools, defended by Tyack and Cuban (1995) as a way to keep what works.

                    C23 Gradual, incremental change that adapts reforms to schools, defended by Tyack and Cuban (1995) as a way to "preserve what is valuable and rework what is not" (p. 5).

                    • Tyack, D., & Cuban, L. (1995). Tinkering toward utopia: A century of public school reform. Harvard University Press.
                    • Holland, B. (2015, September 16). Reflecting on Tinkering toward utopia [Opinion]. Education Week. edweek.org
                    Top-down and bottom-up implementation

                    Two traditions in implementation research: one beginning from the statute and tracing compliance downwards, the other beginning from the point of contact and working upwards (Sabatier, 1986). Elmore's (1979) backward mapping is the practical form of the second.

                    • Sabatier, P. A. (1986). Top-down and bottom-up approaches to implementation research: A critical analysis and suggested synthesis. Journal of Public Policy, 6(1), 21–48. doi
                    • Elmore, R. F. (1979). Backward mapping: Implementation research and policy decisions. Political Science Quarterly, 94(4), 601–616. doi
                    • Matland, R. E. (1995). Synthesizing the implementation literature: The ambiguity-conflict model of policy implementation. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 5(2), 145–174. doi
                    Total cost of ownership

                    "A methodology and philosophy which looks beyond the price of a purchase to include many other purchase-related costs" (Ellram, 1995). In schools the largest hidden costs are usually staff hours for training, support, data migration and eventual replacement.

                    • Ellram, L. M. (1995). Total cost of ownership: An analysis approach for purchasing. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 25(8), 4–23. doi
                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    TPACK

                    Technological pedagogical content knowledge: the knowledge of how technology, pedagogy and content fit together in a particular context (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

                    • Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054. doi
                    • Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9(1), 60–70. citejournal.org
                    • Graham, C. R. (2011). Theoretical considerations for understanding technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Computers & Education, 57(3), 1953–1960. doi
                    Transformational leadership

                    Leadership aimed at the organisation's capacity to change: vision, motivation, developing people and redesigning structures. Leithwood and colleagues (2020) group successful practices into setting directions, building relationships and developing people, redesigning the organisation, and improving the instructional programme.

                    • Hallinger, P. (2003). Leading educational change: Reflections on the practice of instructional and transformational leadership. Cambridge Journal of Education, 33(3), 329–352. doi
                    • Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2020). Seven strong claims about successful school leadership revisited. School Leadership & Management, 40(1), 5–22. doi
                    • Robinson, V. M. J., Lloyd, C. A., & Rowe, K. J. (2008). The impact of leadership on student outcomes: An analysis of the differential effects of leadership types. Educational Administration Quarterly, 44(5), 635–674. doi
                    Transformative competencies

                    The OECD’s (2019) name for creating new value, taking responsibility, and reconciling conflicts, tensions and dilemmas — the competencies its Learning Compass says learners need to shape a changing world.

                    • OECD. (2019). OECD Learning Compass 2030 [Concept note, OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030]. oecd.org
                    Transitions

                    The shifts between activities, places or groupings within a lesson. Unstructured transitions are associated with more disruptive behaviour (Arlin, 1979).

                    C16 The moves between sectors: nursery to school, school to work or college, college to university, study to employment, employment to retraining. Transitions are where learners are lost, and where systems have the least data.

                    • Arlin, M. (1979). Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 16(1), 42–56. doi
                    • Wolf, A. (2011). Review of vocational education: The Wolf report (DFE-00031-2011). Department for Education. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
                    • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
                    Translanguaging

                    The practice of drawing on a learner's whole language repertoire, rather than keeping named languages strictly apart, for thinking, talk and writing (García & Li Wei, 2014).

                    • García, O., & Li Wei. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan. doi
                    • Prilutskaya, M. (2021). Examining pedagogical translanguaging: A systematic review of the literature. Languages, 6(4), Article 180. doi
                    Transparency

                    Making requirements, criteria and outcomes public. It is an instrument rather than a window: publishing a figure creates an audience, and the audience creates an incentive (Burgess et al., 2013).

                    • Burgess, S., Wilson, D., & Worth, J. (2013). A natural experiment in school accountability: The impact of school performance information on pupil progress. Journal of Public Economics, 106, 57–67. doi
                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    Travelling policies

                    Reforms that move readily between systems because they are easy to name, easy to legislate and compatible with many contexts, as against reforms that stay home. Which ones travel is a separate question from which ones work (Steiner-Khamsi, 2014).

                    • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2014). Cross-national policy borrowing: Understanding reception and translation. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(2), 153–167. doi
                    • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2016). New directions in policy borrowing research. Asia Pacific Education Review, 17(3), 381–390. doi
                    • Steiner-Khamsi, G. (Ed.). (2004). The global politics of educational borrowing and lending. Teachers College Press.
                    Twice-exceptional learners

                    Students who show the potential for high achievement or creative productivity in one or more domains and also have one or more disabilities (Reis et al., 2014).

                    • Reis, S. M., Baum, S. M., & Burke, E. (2014). An operational definition of twice-exceptional learners. Gifted Child Quarterly, 58(3), 217–230. doi
                    Two sigma claim

                    Bloom's report that the average tutored student was about two standard deviations above the control class. It came from short studies with narrow tests, and meta-analyses find much smaller effects (Bloom, 1984).

                    • Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2 sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher, 13(6), 4–16. doi
                    • von Hippel, P. T. (2024). Two-sigma tutoring: Separating science fiction from science fact. Education Next, 24(2). educationnext.org
                    • Kulik, C.-L. C., Kulik, J. A., & Bangert-Drowns, R. L. (1990). Effectiveness of mastery learning programs: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 60(2), 265–299. doi
                    Two-lane approach

                    Splitting a programme's assessment into a secured, in-person lane that carries the decisions and an open lane where learning, feedback and supported use of AI happen (Bridgeman et al., 2024).

                    • Bridgeman, A., Weeks, R., & Liu, D. (2024, November 26). Aligning our assessments to the age of generative AI. Teaching@Sydney, University of Sydney. educational-innovation.sydney.edu.au
                    • Lodge, J. M., Howard, S., Bearman, M., Dawson, P., & Associates. (2023). Assessment reform for the age of artificial intelligence. Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency. teqsa.gov.au
                    Tyler’s four questions

                    Four questions behind curriculum design: what purposes a school should seek, what experiences are likely to attain them, how to organise those experiences, and how to determine whether the purposes are attained (Tyler, 1949).

                    • Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. University of Chicago Press.
                    • Smith, M. K. (2000). What is curriculum? Exploring theory and practice. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education. (Original work published 1996). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from infed.org
                    Typology of spatial skills

                    Spatial ability sorted along two dimensions, intrinsic against extrinsic and static against dynamic: mentally rotating a shape is intrinsic and dynamic; locating objects on a map is extrinsic and static (Newcombe & Shipley, 2015).

                    • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
                    • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
                    U
                    Understanding goals

                    In Teaching for Understanding, explicit statements of what students should understand, often phrased as "students will understand that ..." (Perkins & Blythe, 1994).

                    • Perkins, D., & Blythe, T. (1994). Putting understanding up front. Educational Leadership, 51(5), 4–7. ascd.org
                    • Wiske, M. S. (Ed.). (1998). Teaching for understanding: Linking research with practice. Jossey-Bass.
                    UNESCO AI competency frameworks

                    Two 2024 frameworks: 12 competencies for students and 15 for teachers, treating ethics and a human-centred view as competencies in their own right (Miao & Cukurova, 2024; Miao, Shiohira, & Lao, 2024).

                    • Miao, F., Shiohira, K., & Lao, N. (2024). AI competency framework for students. UNESCO. unesco.org
                    • Miao, F., & Cukurova, M. (2024). AI competency framework for teachers. UNESCO. unesco.org
                    Unintended consequences

                    Effects a policy produces that nobody designed, especially where a number carries consequences. Campbell's (1979) law is the general statement; primer C14 covers what it does to assessment systems in detail.

                    • Campbell, D. T. (1979). Assessing the impact of planned social change. Evaluation and Program Planning, 2(1), 67–90. doi
                    • Merton, R. K. (1936). The unanticipated consequences of purposive social action. American Sociological Review, 1(6), 894–904. doi
                    Unit and scheme of work

                    A plan for a sequence of lessons, from a unit of a few weeks to a scheme covering a term or year. It is where curricular knowledge becomes a teaching order.

                    • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
                    Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

                    A framework developed by CAST for building options in from the start, through multiple means of engagement, representation, and action and expression, with learner agency as the goal (Meyer et al., 2014).

                    • Meyer, A., Rose, D. H., & Gordon, D. (2014). Universal design for learning: Theory and practice. CAST Professional Publishing. publishing.cast.org
                    • CAST. (2024). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0. udlguidelines.cast.org
                    • Boysen, G. A. (2024). A critical analysis of the research evidence behind CAST’s universal design for learning guidelines. Policy Futures in Education, 22(7), 1219–1238. doi
                    Use and influence of evaluation

                    What an evaluation actually changes: a decision, a practice, or how people understand a problem. Utilisation-focused evaluation treats use by named intended users as the goal of the whole exercise (Patton, 2013).

                    • Patton, M. Q. (2013). Utilization-focused evaluation (U-FE) checklist. The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
                    • Johnson, K., Greenseid, L. O., Toal, S. A., King, J. A., Lawrenz, F., & Volkov, B. (2009). Research on evaluation use: A review of the empirical literature from 1986 to 2005. American Journal of Evaluation, 30(3), 377–410. doi
                    • Cousins, J. B., & Leithwood, K. A. (1986). Current empirical research on evaluation utilization. Review of Educational Research, 56(3), 331–364. doi
                    Utilisation-focused evaluation

                    An approach that starts from the user: identify the primary intended users, design every step around their use, and report in a form they can act on (Patton, 2013).

                    • Patton, M. Q. (2013). Utilization-focused evaluation (U-FE) checklist. The Evaluation Center, Western Michigan University. files.wmich.edu
                    • Patton, M. Q. (2008). Utilization-focused evaluation (4th ed.). Sage.
                    V
                    Validity

                    "The degree to which evidence and theory support the interpretations of test scores for proposed uses of tests" (AERA et al., 2014). It belongs to an interpretation for a use, never to the instrument alone.

                    • Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. doi
                    • Kane, M. T. (2013). Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores. Journal of Educational Measurement, 50(1), 1–73. doi
                    • AERA, APA, & NCME. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association. testingstandards.net
                    Validity argument

                    The set of claims, inferences and supporting evidence that links a performance to a decision. Kane (2013) calls the statement of what is claimed the interpretation/use argument, and validation its evaluation.

                    • Kane, M. T. (2013). Validating the interpretations and uses of test scores. Journal of Educational Measurement, 50(1), 1–73. doi
                    • Cook, D. A., Brydges, R., Ginsburg, S., & Hatala, R. (2015). A contemporary approach to validity arguments: A practical guide to Kane’s framework. Medical Education, 49(6), 560–575. doi
                    • Crooks, T. J., Kane, M. T., & Cohen, A. S. (1996). Threats to the valid use of assessments. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 3(3), 265–286. doi
                    Value for money

                    The standard a public buyer is held to. Singapore's formulation: "We look beyond the lowest price. Quality, reliability, risk, timeliness, and long-term costs matter" (Ministry of Finance, 2025). It is not the same as the cheapest compliant bid.

                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2025). Government procurement. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    • Ellram, L. M. (1995). Total cost of ownership: An analysis approach for purchasing. International Journal of Physical Distribution & Logistics Management, 25(8), 4–23. doi
                    Values education

                    Teaching and practice aimed at the values students hold and act on, such as respect, responsibility and care. It can be explicit, in a programme, or implicit, in how a school runs.

                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2021). Character & citizenship education (CCE) syllabus: Secondary. moe.gov.sg
                    Vendor management

                    The work of running a supplier relationship after the contract is signed: checking delivery against the contract, monitoring costs, documenting decisions and handling disputes. In public procurement it is a named stage, not an afterthought (Ministry of Finance, 2026).

                    • Ministry of Finance, Singapore. (2026). Procurement processes. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from mof.gov.sg
                    Vertical and horizontal accountability

                    Vertical accountability "is top-down and hierarchical", covering compliance with rules and answering for performance. Horizontal accountability "presupposes non-hierarchical relationships", covering professional standards and answering to students, parents and community (Hooge et al., 2012).

                    • Hooge, E., Burns, T., & Wilkoszewski, H. (2012). Looking beyond the numbers: Stakeholders and multiple school accountability (OECD Education Working Paper No. 85). OECD Publishing. doi
                    Virtual learning environments and LMS

                    Online platforms that hold course materials, activities, discussion and assessment, also called learning management systems. Singapore's national example is the Student Learning Space (Ministry of Education, n.d.).

                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.). Singapore Student Learning Space (SLS). Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
                    Virtual reality (VR)

                    A computer-generated environment that replaces the user's view of the real world, usually through a head-mounted display; the virtual end of Milgram and Kishino's (1994) continuum.

                    • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
                    • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
                    • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
                    Virtuality continuum

                    A continuum that connects completely real environments to completely virtual ones, with augmented reality, augmented virtuality and the rest of mixed reality between the two ends (Milgram & Kishino, 1994).

                    • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
                    Vocational education

                    Education that prepares people for particular occupations or trades. It serves qualification most directly, and socialises students into the norms of a profession.

                    • Labaree, D. F. (1997). Public goods, private goods: The American struggle over educational goals. American Educational Research Journal, 34(1), 39–81. doi
                    W
                    Wait time

                    The pause after a teacher asks a question (wait time 1) or after a student answers (wait time 2). Teachers typically wait less than one second (Rowe, 1986).

                    • Rowe, M. B. (1986). Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up! Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 43–50. doi
                    Washback

                    The effect a test has on teaching and learning before it is taken. Alderson and Wall (1993) argued it is neither automatic nor simple, and its size varies with the stakes and the teacher (Alderson & Hamp-Lyons, 1996).

                    • Alderson, J. C., & Wall, D. (1993). Does washback exist? Applied Linguistics, 14(2), 115–129. doi
                    • Alderson, J. C., & Hamp-Lyons, L. (1996). TOEFL preparation courses: A study of washback. Language Testing, 13(3), 280–297. doi
                    Weak signals

                    Small, early indications that something may be shifting, visible before a trend is established. Most turn out to be nothing, which is why they are gathered in quantity rather than judged one at a time.

                    • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
                    • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026b). Our approach. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
                    Wellbeing

                    A state of feeling good and functioning well, including physical and mental health, positive relationships and a sense of purpose. In schools it is both an aim and a condition for learning.

                    • Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students' social and emotional learning: A meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Development, 82(1), 405–432. doi
                    • Orben, A., & Przybylski, A. K. (2019). The association between adolescent well-being and digital technology use. Nature Human Behaviour, 3(2), 173–182. doi
                    What Works Clearinghouse

                    A US body that rates a finding as meeting its standards without reservations, with reservations, or not at all. The rating turns chiefly on how assignment to condition occurred (What Works Clearinghouse, 2022).

                    • What Works Clearinghouse. (2022). What Works Clearinghouse procedures and standards handbook, version 5.0. Institute of Education Sciences, US Department of Education. ies.ed.gov
                    Wild cards

                    Low-likelihood events with very large effects. Foresight treats them as worth rehearsing precisely because they cannot be forecast.

                    • Centre for Strategic Futures. (2026b). Our approach. Strategy Group, Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from csf.gov.sg
                    Wind-tunnelling

                    Also called policy stress-testing: running an existing plan, policy or product through each of a set of scenarios to see where it holds, where it needs work and where it fails (Government Office for Science, 2024).

                    • Government Office for Science. (2024). The futures toolkit: Tools for futures thinking and foresight across UK government (Edition 2). assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
                    • OECD. (2020). Back to the future of education: Four OECD scenarios for schooling. OECD Publishing. doi
                    Withitness

                    Kounin's term for a teacher showing students, by what they do, that they know what is happening across the whole room. It is usually paired with overlapping, attending to two events at once (Kounin, 1970).

                    • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
                    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
                    Worked examples

                    Step-by-step demonstrations of how to solve a problem, studied before or alongside practice. They help novices and can hinder experts (Kalyuga et al., 2003). The guide Designing for Learning covers them in depth.

                    • Kalyuga, S., Ayres, P., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2003). The expertise reversal effect. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 23–31. doi
                    • Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi
                    • Alfieri, L., Brooks, P. J., Aldrich, N. J., & Tenenbaum, H. R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning? Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(1), 1–18. doi
                    Workload

                    The hours and tasks that teaching involves, including teaching, preparation, marking, administration and duties. TALIS 2024 found Singapore lower secondary teachers report 47.3 hours a week, against an OECD average of 41 (OECD, 2025).

                    • OECD. (2025). Results from TALIS 2024: Singapore [Country note]. OECD Publishing. oecd.org
                    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2025b, November 4). Improving work-life balance and mental well-being of educators in view of OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey 2024 findings [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
                    Workplace learning

                    Learning that happens through, and at, work: induction, structured training, coaching, and the everyday participation Lave and Wenger (1991) describe as legitimate peripheral participation in a community of practice.

                    • Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation. Cambridge University Press. doi
                    • Clardy, A. (2018). 70-20-10 and the dominance of informal learning: A fact in search of evidence. Human Resource Development Review, 17(2), 153–178. doi
                    • OECD. (2019). Getting skills right: Future-ready adult learning systems. OECD Publishing. doi
                    Writing process

                    Writing understood as planning, drafting and revising rather than a single performance. Strategy instruction in these processes has the largest measured effect on adolescents’ writing quality (Graham & Perin, 2007).

                    • Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 445–476. doi
                    Wrong drivers

                    Fullan's term for what systems repeatedly pick: accountability rather than capacity building, individual quality rather than group solutions, technology rather than instruction, and fragmented rather than systemic strategies (Fullan, 2011).

                    • Fullan, M. (2011). Choosing the wrong drivers for whole system reform (Seminar Series Paper No. 204). Centre for Strategic Education. michaelfullan.ca
                    • Fullan, M., & Quinn, J. (2016). Coherence: The right drivers in action for schools, districts, and systems. Corwin.
                    Z
                    Zone of proximal development

                    The distance between what a child can do through independent problem solving and what they can do under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers; it moves as the learner grows (Vygotsky, 1978).

                    • Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.

                    Nearby

                    The other glossary, and the series behind this one

                    The craft glossary Understanding the Context of Education All guides
                    Singapore