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Classroom realities glossary

26 terms from C06, Classroom realities: orchestration and differentiation — each defined in the primer's own words. Every term the primer teaches links to the slide that teaches it.

The whole context glossary

C06 · Teaching and learning

Classroom realities: orchestration and differentiation

“A good tool works the same in every classroom.”

Every term below is defined in the words of classroom realities, primer C06 of understanding the context of education, and opens the primer at the slide where it is taught. 1 term is also defined by another primer in the series; where the two differ, both wordings are given. The whole context glossary holds all of them together.

TermDefinitionReferred to inRead further
A
Ability grouping

Placing students of similar attainment together, either in small groups within one class or in separate classes. Its effects depend on the form it takes and on whether the teaching changes (Steenbergen-Hu et al., 2016; Deunk et al., 2018).

  • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
  • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
  • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
Academic learning time

The time a student spends engaged on an academic task they can perform with high success. It was developed in the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study as a measure of learning in progress (Fisher et al., 2015).

  • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
  • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
B
Bring your own device

A policy in which students use their own laptops, tablets or phones in lessons, rather than devices owned by the school. It widens access but adds variety in models, settings and charge that a teacher has to manage.

    C
    Carroll's model of school learning

    A model in which the degree of learning depends on time actually spent relative to time needed, shaped by aptitude, ability to understand instruction, perseverance, opportunity to learn and quality of instruction (Carroll, 1963).

    • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
    • Carroll, J. B. (1989). The Carroll model: A 25-year retrospective and prospective view. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 26–31. doi
    Checking for understanding

    Short, frequent checks during a lesson, such as questions, mini whiteboards or quick quizzes, to see whether the class has understood before moving on. Primer C13 covers formative assessment in depth.

    • Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5(1), 7–74. doi
    • Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know. American Educator, 36(1), 12–19, 39.
    Class size

    The number of students taught together in one class. Singapore reports an average form class size of 34 in primary and 33 in secondary schools, while subject classes can be smaller (Ministry of Education, n.d.-b).

    • Krueger, A. B. (1999). Experimental estimates of education production functions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(2), 497–532. doi
    • Filges, T., Sonne-Schmidt, C. S., & Nielsen, B. C. V. (2018). Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1). doi
    • Schanzenbach, D. W. (2014). Does class size matter? National Education Policy Center. nepc.colorado.edu
    Classroom management

    The actions and strategies teachers use to create and keep order for learning. Doyle (1986) framed it as solving "the problem of order in classrooms" (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

    • Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). Macmillan.
    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
    • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
    Classroom orchestration

    How a teacher manages, in real time, several layers of activity under many constraints (Dillenbourg, 2013). In design terms, it asks whether a tool is usable by a whole class run by one teacher.

    • Dillenbourg, P. (2013). Design for classroom orchestration. Computers & Education, 69, 485–492. doi
    • Prieto, L. P. (2015). Classroom technology design guidelines: A focused survey. In Proceedings of the Orchestrated Collaborative Classroom Workshop 2015 (CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 1411). ceur-ws.org
    Cold calling

    Asking a question and then choosing who answers, instead of taking volunteers. It keeps more students thinking, and needs a safe climate so that being asked is not a threat.

    • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
    • Lemov, D. (2010). Teach like a champion: 49 techniques that put students on the path to college. Jossey-Bass.
    D
    Device management

    Software and procedures that let a school set up, restrict, update and monitor students' devices. Singapore installs Device Management Applications on secondary students' Personal Learning Devices (Ministry of Education, 2020b).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020a, November 2). Personal learning device [Parliamentary reply]. moe.gov.sg
    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2020b, December 29). Blended learning to enhance schooling experience and further develop students into self-directed learners [Press release]. moe.gov.sg
    Differentiation

    An approach in which teachers proactively adapt curricula, methods, resources, activities and products to the diverse needs of students (Tomlinson et al., 2003). Content, process, product and learning environment can each be adapted.

    • Tomlinson, C. A., Brighton, C., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C. M., Moon, T. R., Brimijoin, K., Conover, L. A., & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating instruction in response to student readiness, interest, and learning profile in academically diverse classrooms: A review of literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27(2–3), 119–145. doi
    • Tomlinson, C. A. (2014). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners (2nd ed.). ASCD.
    • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
    E
    Effect size benchmarks

    Kraft's benchmarks for randomised trials of education interventions with standardised test outcomes: below 0.05 standard deviations is small, 0.05 to below 0.20 is medium, and 0.20 or more is large (Kraft, 2020).

    • Kraft, M. A. (2020). Interpreting effect sizes of education interventions. Educational Researcher, 49(4), 241–253. doi
    F
    Full Subject-Based Banding (SG)

    Singapore's replacement for secondary streaming, implemented from 2024 in schools with academic streams. Students share mixed form classes and take subjects at levels G1, G2 or G3 (Ministry of Education, n.d.-a).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). What you need to know about Full SBB. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    • Malay Mail. (2019, March 6). Secondary school streaming in Singapore to be abolished in 2024, replaced with subject-based banding. malaymail.com
    L
    Lesson flow and interruptions

    The momentum of a lesson from one activity to the next, and the events that break it: announcements, late arrivals, technical faults, visitors. Kounin (1970) treated smoothness and momentum as core management skills.

    • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
    • Arlin, M. (1979). Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 16(1), 42–56. doi
    M
    Mixed attainment

    A class or group that includes students at different levels of attainment, taught together. Every class formed by age is mixed to some degree (Deunk et al., 2018).

    • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
    R
    Relief teaching

    Teaching a class in place of its usual teacher for a short period, also called cover or supply teaching. Singapore employs relief educators "to cover primarily teaching duties" (Ministry of Education, n.d.-c).

    • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). Scheme for Relief Educator (SRE): Overview. Retrieved September 17, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
    Routines

    Procedures for recurring tasks, such as entering the room, handing out devices or moving into groups, that students are taught and practise until they run with little prompting (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
    • Emmer, E. T., Evertson, C. M., & Anderson, L. M. (1980). Effective classroom management at the beginning of the school year. The Elementary School Journal, 80(5), 219–231. doi
    S
    Setting

    Grouping students by attainment for particular subjects, so a student can be in a higher set for one subject and a lower set for another. It is a form of between-class grouping.

    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
    • Deunk, M. I., Smale-Jacobse, A. E., de Boer, H., Doolaard, S., & Bosker, R. J. (2018). Effective differentiation practices: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on the cognitive effects of differentiation practices in primary education. Educational Research Review, 24, 31–54. doi
    Six properties of classrooms

    Doyle's description of classrooms as multidimensional, simultaneous, immediate, unpredictable, public and historical. Each property limits what a teacher, or a tool, can ask of the room (Doyle, 1986).

    • Doyle, W. (1986). Classroom organization and management. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed., pp. 392–431). Macmillan.
    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi
    • Jackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
    STAR experiment

    Tennessee's experiment that randomly assigned students to small classes of 13 to 17 or regular classes of 22 to 25. Test scores rose, more for minority students and those on free lunch (Krueger, 1999).

    • Krueger, A. B. (1999). Experimental estimates of education production functions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 114(2), 497–532. doi
    • Filges, T., Sonne-Schmidt, C. S., & Nielsen, B. C. V. (2018). Small class sizes for improving student achievement in primary and secondary schools: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 14(1). doi
    • Schanzenbach, D. W. (2014). Does class size matter? National Education Policy Center. nepc.colorado.edu
    Streaming and tracking

    Placing students in different classes, courses or schools by attainment across most or all subjects. "Tracking" is the common US term. Early tracking is associated with greater inequality (Hanushek & Wößmann, 2006).

    • Hanushek, E. A., & Wößmann, L. (2006). Does educational tracking affect performance and inequality? Differences-in-differences evidence across countries. The Economic Journal, 116(510), C63–C76. doi
    • Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. Yale University Press.
    • Steenbergen-Hu, S., Makel, M. C., & Olszewski-Kubilius, P. (2016). What one hundred years of research says about the effects of ability grouping and acceleration on K–12 students’ academic achievement: Findings of two second-order meta-analyses. Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 849–899. doi
    T
    Teacher dashboards

    Displays that summarise student activity and progress for a teacher, sometimes in real time. See C15 for dashboards and school data.

    • Holstein, K., McLaren, B. M., & Aleven, V. (2018). Student learning benefits of a mixed-reality teacher awareness tool in AI-enhanced classrooms. In C. P. Rosé et al. (Eds.), Artificial intelligence in education: AIED 2018 (pp. 154–168). Springer. doi
    • Kaliisa, R., Misiejuk, K., López-Pernas, S., Khalil, M., & Saqr, M. (2024). Have learning analytics dashboards lived up to the hype? A systematic review of impact on students’ achievement, motivation, participation and attitude. In Proceedings of the 14th Learning Analytics and Knowledge Conference (pp. 295–304). ACM. doi
    • Prieto, L. P. (2015). Classroom technology design guidelines: A focused survey. In Proceedings of the Orchestrated Collaborative Classroom Workshop 2015 (CEUR Workshop Proceedings, Vol. 1411). ceur-ws.org
    Time on task

    The share of time students spend actively engaged in the learning activity. It is one component of academic learning time, alongside allocated time and success rate (Fisher et al., 2015).

    • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
    • Carroll, J. B. (1963). A model of school learning. Teachers College Record, 64(8), 723–733. doi
    Transitions

    The shifts between activities, places or groupings within a lesson. Unstructured transitions are associated with more disruptive behaviour (Arlin, 1979).

    C16 The moves between sectors: nursery to school, school to work or college, college to university, study to employment, employment to retraining. Transitions are where learners are lost, and where systems have the least data.

    • Arlin, M. (1979). Teacher transitions can disrupt time flow in classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 16(1), 42–56. doi
    • Wolf, A. (2011). Review of vocational education: The Wolf report (DFE-00031-2011). Department for Education. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk
    • Fisher, C., Berliner, D., Filby, N., Marliave, R., Cahen, L., & Dishaw, M. (2015). Teaching behaviors, academic learning time, and student achievement: An overview. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 50(1), 6–24. (Original work published 1980) files.eric.ed.gov
    W
    Wait time

    The pause after a teacher asks a question (wait time 1) or after a student answers (wait time 2). Teachers typically wait less than one second (Rowe, 1986).

    • Rowe, M. B. (1986). Wait time: Slowing down may be a way of speeding up! Journal of Teacher Education, 37(1), 43–50. doi
    Withitness

    Kounin's term for a teacher showing students, by what they do, that they know what is happening across the whole room. It is usually paired with overlapping, attending to two events at once (Kounin, 1970).

    • Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
    • Emmer, E. T., & Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology, with implications for teacher education. Educational Psychologist, 36(2), 103–112. doi

    Nearby

    The primer itself, and the ones either side

    Read classroom realities (opens in a new tab)Teachers' work and professional knowledge Inclusion, diversity and special educational needs All 24 primers
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