Gerald Ajam

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Embodied, spatial and immersive learning glossary

49 terms from C09, Embodied, spatial and immersive learning — each defined in the primer's own words. Every term the primer teaches links to the slide that teaches it.

The whole context glossary

C09 · Learning environments

Embodied, spatial and immersive learning

“More immersion means more learning.”

Every term below is defined in the words of embodied, spatial and immersive learning, primer C09 of understanding the context of education, and opens the primer at the slide where it is taught. The whole context glossary holds all of them together.

TermDefinitionReferred to inRead further
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4E cognition

A family of views holding that cognition is embodied, embedded (in an environment), enacted (through action) and extended (into tools and surroundings) (Newen et al., 2018).

  • Newen, A., De Bruin, L., & Gallagher, S. (Eds.). (2018). The Oxford handbook of 4E cognition. Oxford University Press. doi
  • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
360° video

Video recorded in every direction at once, which a viewer can look around in, usually through a headset. It gives a sense of place but little or no ability to act on the scene.

    A
    Agency and avatars

    Agency is the sense of controlling one's own actions in an environment; CAMIL names it, with presence, as a core affordance of immersive VR (Makransky & Petersen, 2021). An avatar is the body that represents a user in a virtual world.

    • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
    • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5, 81. doi
    Augmented reality (AR)

    A real environment "augmented by means of virtual (computer graphic) objects", such as labels or models laid over a camera view (Milgram & Kishino, 1994).

    • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
    • Azuma, R. T. (1997). A survey of augmented reality. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(4), 355–385. doi
    B
    Bodily engagement

    How much bodily activity a learning task involves, from watching to whole-body movement. One of two dimensions in Skulmowski and Rey's (2018) taxonomy.

    • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
    Body schema

    The largely unconscious sense of the body's layout, size and posture that the brain uses to guide movement. It is part of body awareness, not of spatial ability.

    • Gallagher, S. (2005). How the body shapes the mind. Oxford University Press. doi
    C
    Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL)

    A model that names presence and agency as the general psychological affordances of immersive VR, acting through six factors: interest, motivation, self-efficacy, embodiment, cognitive load and self-regulation (Makransky & Petersen, 2021).

    • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
    Cognitive load theory

    See Gerald Ajam's guide Designing for Learning. In brief: working memory is limited, and designs that add load unrelated to the goal leave less capacity for learning. Embodied and immersive designs can add such load (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019).

    • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
    • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
    Cognitive offloading

    "The use of physical action to alter the information processing requirements of a task so as to reduce cognitive demand", such as writing a note or tilting one's head (Risko & Gilbert, 2016).

    • Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. doi
    • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
    Conceptual metaphor

    The idea that abstract concepts are understood through bodily experience, as when more is described as up, in phrases such as "prices rose" (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).

    • Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. University of Chicago Press.
    Cybersickness

    Nausea, dizziness, headache and related symptoms during or after using virtual reality. Pooled scores across 55 studies were "relatively high" against recommended cut-offs (Saredakis et al., 2020).

    • Saredakis, D., Szpak, A., Birckhead, B., Keage, H. A. D., Rizzo, A., & Loetscher, T. (2020). Factors associated with virtual reality sickness in head-mounted displays: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 96. doi
    E
    Educational Framework for Immersive Learning

    A framework that treats presence as the central criterion of immersive learning, shaped by the technology and by learners' motivation, cognition and emotion (Dengel & Mägdefrau, 2018).

    • Dengel, A., & Mägdefrau, J. (2018). Immersive learning explored: Subjective and objective factors influencing learning outcomes in immersive educational virtual environments. In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 608–615). IEEE. doi
    Embodied cognition

    The view that cognitive processes are rooted in the body's interactions with the world. It houses several distinct claims of different strength (Wilson, 2002).

    • Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(4), 625–636. doi
    • Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645. doi
    • Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying perspective for psychology. WIREs Cognitive Science, 1(4), 586–596. doi
    Embodied design

    The craft of building learning activities and materials that draw on how people naturally move and perceive, and then connect that experience to disciplinary ideas (Abrahamson & Lindgren, 2022).

    • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
    • Johnson-Glenberg, M. C. (2018). Immersive VR and education: Embodied design principles that include gesture and hand controls. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 5, 81. doi
    • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
    Embodied learning

    Learning designs and research that apply embodied cognition to education, including gesture, hands-on materials, physical activity and interactive media (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018).

    • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
    • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
    • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
    G
    Generative learning activities

    Tasks that ask learners to make sense of material actively, such as summarising, explaining or drawing. Summarising after each segment improved learning from a VR lesson (Fiorella & Mayer, 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018).

    • Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). Eight ways to promote generative learning. Educational Psychology Review, 28(4), 717–741. doi
    • Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E. (2018). Learning science in immersive virtual reality. Journal of Educational Psychology, 110(6), 785–797. doi
    Gesture

    Movement of the hands and body that accompanies or replaces speech and carries meaning. It can reveal and change a speaker's thinking (Goldin-Meadow & Alibali, 2013).

    • Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture’s role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257–283. doi
    • Cook, S. W., Mitchell, Z., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Gesturing makes learning last. Cognition, 106(2), 1047–1058. doi
    • Hostetter, A. B. (2011). When do gestures communicate? A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 297–315. doi
    Gesture–speech mismatch

    When a learner's gestures express information that their words do not. Mismatch indicates transitional knowledge and readiness to learn (Church & Goldin-Meadow, 1986).

    • Church, R. B., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1986). The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge. Cognition, 23(1), 43–71. doi
    • Goldin-Meadow, S., & Alibali, M. W. (2013). Gesture’s role in speaking, learning, and creating language. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 257–283. doi
    Grounded cognition and simulation

    The view that knowledge is represented through partial re-enactments, or simulations, in the brain's systems for perception, action and introspection, rather than only as abstract symbols (Barsalou, 2008).

    • Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 617–645. doi
    • Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2008). A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 102(1–3), 59–70. doi
    Grounding by interaction

    A middle ground between embodied and disembodied views of concepts, proposed on the argument that motor activation during thought can equally be accommodated by a disembodied view (Mahon & Caramazza, 2008).

    • Mahon, B. Z., & Caramazza, A. (2008). A critical look at the embodied cognition hypothesis and a new proposal for grounding conceptual content. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 102(1–3), 59–70. doi
    H
    Head-mounted display (HMD)

    A headset that places screens in front of each eye and tracks head movement, producing immersive VR. Low-cost, high-quality models have been widely available since about 2013 (Wu et al., 2020).

    • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
    • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
    • Saredakis, D., Szpak, A., Birckhead, B., Keage, H. A. D., Rizzo, A., & Loetscher, T. (2020). Factors associated with virtual reality sickness in head-mounted displays: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 14, 96. doi
    I
    Immersion

    The objective properties of a system: how inclusive, extensive, surrounding and vivid its display is, and how well it matches the user's body (Slater & Wilbur, 1997).

    • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
    • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
    Immersive learning

    "Learning activities initiated by a mediated or medially enriched environment that evokes a sense of presence" (Dengel & Mägdefrau, 2018).

    • Dengel, A., & Mägdefrau, J. (2018). Immersive learning explored: Subjective and objective factors influencing learning outcomes in immersive educational virtual environments. In 2018 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment, and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 608–615). IEEE. doi
    • Makransky, G., & Petersen, G. B. (2021). The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A theoretical research-based model of learning in immersive virtual reality. Educational Psychology Review, 33(3), 937–958. doi
    • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
    Indexical hypothesis

    The hypothesis that young readers may not consistently index, or map, words to the objects the words represent, and so derive little meaning from the text (Glenberg et al., 2004).

    • Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004). Activity and imagined activity can enhance young children’s reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 424–436. doi
    • Glenberg, A. M. (2010). Embodiment as a unifying perspective for psychology. WIREs Cognitive Science, 1(4), 586–596. doi
    M
    Manipulatives

    Physical objects, such as blocks, rods or fraction tiles, used to represent mathematical ideas. Their benefit depends on how instruction links them to the idea (Carbonneau et al., 2013).

    • Carbonneau, K. J., Marley, S. C., & Selig, J. P. (2013). A meta-analysis of the efficacy of teaching mathematics with concrete manipulatives. Journal of Educational Psychology, 105(2), 380–400. doi
    • Glenberg, A. M., Gutierrez, T., Levin, J. R., Japuntich, S., & Kaschak, M. P. (2004). Activity and imagined activity can enhance young children’s reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(3), 424–436. doi
    Mathematics Imagery Trainer

    An embodied design for proportion in which a screen turns green only when a student's two hands are held at a set ratio of heights, such as 1:2 (Abrahamson & Lindgren, 2022).

    • Abrahamson, D., & Lindgren, R. (2022). Embodiment and embodied design. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of the learning sciences (3rd ed., pp. 301–320). Cambridge University Press. doi
    Media-comparison studies

    Studies that compare the same content delivered through different media. Critics argue they confound the medium with the method (Clark, 1994; Kozma, 1994).

    • Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21–29. doi
    • Kozma, R. B. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7–19. doi
    Mental rotation

    Imagining an object turning in order to compare it with another. It is the classic test of intrinsic, dynamic spatial skill (Yang et al., 2020).

    • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
    • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
    • Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. doi
    Metaverse

    "A perpetual and persistent multiuser environment merging physical reality with digital virtuality", built on VR and AR (Mystakidis, 2022). The term is used loosely and often promotionally.

    • Mystakidis, S. (2022). Metaverse. Encyclopedia, 2(1), 486–497. doi
    Mixed and extended reality (MR, XR)

    Mixed reality covers any display between fully real and fully virtual environments (Milgram & Kishino, 1994). Extended reality is a later umbrella term for VR, AR and MR together.

    • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
    • Lindgren, R., & Johnson-Glenberg, M. (2013). Emboldened by embodiment: Six precepts for research on embodied learning and mixed reality. Educational Researcher, 42(8), 445–452. doi
    Motor development and body awareness

    The growth of control over movement and of the sense of where the body is in space. See C09, Embodied, spatial and immersive learning, and C12 on subject pedagogies, including physical education.

      P
      Perspective-taking

      Imagining how a scene looks from another position. It is an extrinsic, dynamic spatial skill (Yang et al., 2020).

      • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
      • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
      Physically active learning

      Lessons that combine academic content with physical activity, such as moving around the room to answer questions. It raises activity during lessons; effects on attainment are small and uncertain (Norris et al., 2020; Bedard et al., 2019).

      • Norris, E., van Steen, T., Direito, A., & Stamatakis, E. (2020). Physically active lessons in schools and their impact on physical activity, educational, health and cognition outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54(14), 826–838. doi
      • Bedard, C., St John, L., Bremer, E., Graham, J. D., & Cairney, J. (2019). A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of physically active classrooms on educational and enjoyment outcomes in school age children. PLOS ONE, 14(6), e0218633. doi
      Place and plausibility illusion

      Place illusion is the sense of "being there". Plausibility illusion is "the illusion that the scenario being depicted is actually occurring" (Slater, 2009).

      • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
      • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
      Presence

      "A state of consciousness" that may accompany immersion, "related to a sense of being in a place" (Slater & Wilbur, 1997). It is a feeling, not a learning outcome.

      • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
      • Slater, M. (2009). Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behaviour in immersive virtual environments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364(1535), 3549–3557. doi
      • Makransky, G., Terkildsen, T. S., & Mayer, R. E. (2019). Adding immersive virtual reality to a science lab simulation causes more presence but less learning. Learning and Instruction, 60, 225–236. doi
      Proprioception and kinaesthesia

      Proprioception is the sense of the position of one's body parts; kinaesthesia is the sense of their movement. See C03 and C12 for motor development and physical literacy.

        S
        Seductive details

        "Interesting but irrelevant information" added to instruction. Removing them tends to improve retention and transfer (Rey, 2012).

        • Rey, G. D. (2012). A review of research and a meta-analysis of the seductive detail effect. Educational Research Review, 7(3), 216–237. doi
        • Harp, S. F., & Mayer, R. E. (1998). How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 414–434. doi
        Simulation-based learning

        Practising skills or exploring systems in a model of a real situation, with or without immersive displays. With scaffolding it shows large effects in higher education (Chernikova et al., 2020).

        • Chernikova, O., Heitzmann, N., Stadler, M., Holzberger, D., Seidel, T., & Fischer, F. (2020). Simulation-based learning in higher education: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 90(4), 499–541. doi
        Social presence

        The sense of being with other people in a mediated environment. Slater and Wilbur (1997) discuss presence in shared environments.

        • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
        Spatial ability

        A cognitive capacity to represent, transform and reason about shapes and spatial relations, measured by tests. It predicts STEM attainment (Wai et al., 2009).

        • Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817–835. doi
        • Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. doi
        • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
        Spatial awareness (body in space)

        A sensorimotor sense of where one's body is and how it moves through space. Different from spatial ability; see C03 and C12.

          Spatial language

          Words for shape, size, location and direction, such as "tall", "curvy" or "edge". Children who hear and use more of them tend to do better on later spatial tasks (Pruden et al., 2011).

          • Pruden, S. M., Levine, S. C., & Huttenlocher, J. (2011). Children’s spatial thinking: Does talk about the spatial world matter? Developmental Science, 14(6), 1417–1430. doi
          • Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Newcombe, N. S., Filipowicz, A. T., & Chang, A. (2014). Deconstructing building blocks: Preschoolers’ spatial assembly performance relates to early mathematical skills. Child Development, 85(3), 1062–1076. doi
          Spatial thinking

          Reasoning based on "a constructive amalgam of three elements: concepts of space, tools of representation, and processes of reasoning", used within disciplines (National Research Council, 2006).

          • National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially: GIS as a support system in the K–12 curriculum. National Academies Press. doi
          • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
          Spatial training and transfer

          Practice designed to improve spatial skill. Gains are durable and transfer to untrained spatial tasks (Uttal et al., 2013); transfer to mathematics is smaller and larger when closely aligned (Hawes et al., 2022).

          • Uttal, D. H., Meadow, N. G., Tipton, E., Hand, L. L., Alden, A. R., Warren, C., & Newcombe, N. S. (2013). The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(2), 352–402. doi
          • Hawes, Z. C. K., Gilligan-Lee, K. A., & Mix, K. S. (2022). Effects of spatial training on mathematics performance: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 58(1), 112–137. doi
          • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
          Spatial visualisation

          Imagining complex, multi-step changes to shapes, such as folding a net into a solid. It is a form of intrinsic, dynamic spatial skill.

          • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
          T
          Task-integrated movement

          Bodily activity that is part of the learning task and expresses its content, as opposed to incidental movement (Skulmowski & Rey, 2018).

          • Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2018). Embodied learning: Introducing a taxonomy based on bodily engagement and task integration. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 3, 6. doi
          Typology of spatial skills

          Spatial ability sorted along two dimensions, intrinsic against extrinsic and static against dynamic: mentally rotating a shape is intrinsic and dynamic; locating objects on a map is extrinsic and static (Newcombe & Shipley, 2015).

          • Newcombe, N. S., & Shipley, T. F. (2015). Thinking about spatial thinking: New typology, new assessments. In J. S. Gero (Ed.), Studying visual and spatial reasoning for design creativity (pp. 179–192). Springer. doi
          • Yang, W., Liu, H., Chen, N., Xu, P., & Lin, X. (2020). Is early spatial skills training effective? A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1938. doi
          V
          Virtual reality (VR)

          A computer-generated environment that replaces the user's view of the real world, usually through a head-mounted display; the virtual end of Milgram and Kishino's (1994) continuum.

          • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org
          • Slater, M., & Wilbur, S. (1997). A framework for immersive virtual environments (FIVE): Speculations on the role of presence in virtual environments. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(6), 603–616. doi
          • Wu, B., Yu, X., & Gu, X. (2020). Effectiveness of immersive virtual reality using head-mounted displays on learning performance: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(6), 1991–2005. doi
          Virtuality continuum

          A continuum that connects completely real environments to completely virtual ones, with augmented reality, augmented virtuality and the rest of mixed reality between the two ends (Milgram & Kishino, 1994).

          • Milgram, P., & Kishino, F. (1994). A taxonomy of mixed reality visual displays. IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, E77-D(12), 1321–1329. globals.ieice.org

          Nearby

          The primer itself, and the ones either side

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