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Subject disciplines and their pedagogies glossary

37 terms from C12, Subject disciplines and their pedagogies — each defined in the primer's own words. Every term the primer teaches links to the slide that teaches it.

The whole context glossary

C12 · Curriculum and assessment

Subject disciplines and their pedagogies

“One design pattern fits every subject.”

Every term below is defined in the words of subject disciplines and their pedagogies, primer C12 of understanding the context of education, and opens the primer at the slide where it is taught. 1 term is also defined by another primer in the series; where the two differ, both wordings are given. The whole context glossary holds all of them together.

TermDefinitionReferred to inRead further
A
Applied Learning Programme (SG)

A non-examinable Singapore programme in which schools connect academic subjects to authentic settings, in areas such as STEM, languages, humanities, business and interdisciplinary thinking skills (Ministry of Education, Singapore, n.d.-c).

  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-c). Applied Learning Programme (ALP). Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
B
Bar model

A drawing in which quantities are shown as rectangular bars of proportional length, so that the relationship in a word problem becomes visible before it is written as an equation (Kaur, 2019).

  • Kaur, B. (2019). The why, what and how of the ‘Model’ method: A tool for representing and visualising relationships when solving whole number arithmetic word problems. ZDM, 51(1), 151–168. doi
  • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
C
Communicative language teaching

An approach that treats communication as both the means and the goal of language learning. Its durable forms combine meaningful use with attention to linguistic form (Spada, 2007).

  • Spada, N. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 271–288). Springer. doi
  • Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. doi
Computational thinking

Solving problems and designing systems by drawing on concepts from computer science, such as abstraction, decomposition and algorithms. Wing (2006) argued it belongs in every child’s analytical ability.

  • Wing, J. M. (2006). Computational thinking. Communications of the ACM, 49(3), 33–35. doi
  • Scherer, R., Siddiq, F., & Sánchez Viveros, B. (2019). The cognitive benefits of learning computer programming: A meta-analysis of transfer effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 111(5), 764–792. doi
Conceptual and procedural knowledge

Understanding why a method works, and being able to carry out its steps. The two develop iteratively, each supporting later gains in the other (Rittle-Johnson et al., 2001).

  • Rittle-Johnson, B., Siegler, R. S., & Alibali, M. W. (2001). Developing conceptual understanding and procedural skill in mathematics: An iterative process. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 346–362. doi
  • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
Concrete–pictorial–abstract

A teaching sequence from physical materials, through pictures and diagrams, to symbols. Singapore’s primary mathematics curriculum has used it since 1981 (Kaur, 2014).

  • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
  • Kaur, B. (2019). The why, what and how of the ‘Model’ method: A tool for representing and visualising relationships when solving whole number arithmetic word problems. ZDM, 51(1), 151–168. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
D
Disciplinary knowledge

Knowledge of how a subject generates, tests and revises its claims. In geography it “considers how geographical knowledge originates and is revised” (Ofsted, 2021c).

  • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
  • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
  • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
Disciplinary literacy

The reading, writing and talk particular to a subject, such as sourcing a document in history or reading a proof line by line in mathematics (Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008).

  • Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–59. doi
  • Shanahan, C., Shanahan, T., & Misischia, C. (2011). Analysis of expert readers in three disciplines: History, mathematics, and chemistry. Journal of Literacy Research, 43(4), 393–429. doi
  • Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. doi
F
Fluency

Performing a skill accurately and quickly enough that it no longer occupies attention. In reading it covers accurate, smooth oral reading; in mathematics, Ofsted (2021e) distinguishes this automaticity from conceptual knowledge.

  • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
  • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
  • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
Fundamental movement skills

Basic learned movement patterns, grouped as locomotor, stability and manipulative skills, which “do not occur naturally” and must be taught (Ofsted, 2022; Logan et al., 2012).

  • Logan, S. W., Robinson, L. E., Wilson, A. E., & Lucas, W. A. (2012). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(3), 305–315. doi
  • Ofsted. (2022). Research review series: PE. gov.uk
  • Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. doi
G
Geographical enquiry

Investigation driven by a geographical question, using data as evidence, with pupils interpreting and reflecting. It depends on secure prior knowledge and careful structuring (Ofsted, 2021c).

  • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
H
Historical thinking

The disciplinary practices of history: establishing significance, using primary source evidence, identifying continuity and change, analysing cause and consequence, taking historical perspectives and weighing the ethical dimension (Seixas & Morton, 2013).

  • Seixas, P., & Morton, T. (2013). The big six historical thinking concepts. Nelson Education. historicalthinking.ca
  • Wineburg, S. S. (1991). Historical problem solving: A study of the cognitive processes used in the evaluation of documentary and pictorial evidence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(1), 73–87. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
L
Literacy

The capacity to read, write and use language for the purposes a society expects. This primer treats it as both a gateway skill and something each subject reshapes.

  • Shanahan, T., & Shanahan, C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents: Rethinking content-area literacy. Harvard Educational Review, 78(1), 40–59. doi
  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
M
Mathematics framework (SG)

Singapore’s curriculum framework with mathematical problem solving as its primary focus, drawn as a pentagon of five inter-related components: concepts, skills, processes, attitudes and metacognition. It has held its shape since 1990 (Kaur, 2014).

  • Kaur, B. (2014). Evolution of Singapore’s school mathematics curriculum. In J. Anderson, M. Cavanagh, & A. Prescott (Eds.), Curriculum in focus: Research guided practice (Proceedings of the 37th annual conference of the Mathematics Education Research Group of Australasia, pp. 24–36). MERGA. files.eric.ed.gov
  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (n.d.-a). Primary school curriculum: Syllabus. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from moe.gov.sg
Misconceptions and conceptual change

Prior explanations that conflict with accepted ones, and the process of replacing them. Posner et al. (1982) set four conditions: dissatisfaction, and a new conception that is intelligible, plausible and fruitful.

  • Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66(2), 211–227. doi
  • Pacaci, C., Ustun, U., & Ozdemir, O. F. (2024). Effectiveness of conceptual change strategies in science education: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 61(6), 1263–1325. doi
  • Hake, R. R. (1998). Interactive-engagement versus traditional methods: A six-thousand-student survey of mechanics test data for introductory physics courses. American Journal of Physics, 66(1), 64–74. doi
Motor competence

How well a person performs a range of movement skills. Stodden et al. (2008) treat it as a mechanism that drives later physical activity, fitness and perceived competence.

  • Stodden, D. F., Goodway, J. D., Langendorfer, S. J., Roberton, M. A., Rudisill, M. E., Garcia, C., & Garcia, L. E. (2008). A developmental perspective on the role of motor skill competence in physical activity: An emergent relationship. Quest, 60(2), 290–306. doi
  • Robinson, L. E., Stodden, D. F., Barnett, L. M., Lopes, V. P., Logan, S. W., Rodrigues, L. P., & D’Hondt, E. (2015). Motor competence and its effect on positive developmental trajectories of health. Sports Medicine, 45(9), 1273–1284. doi
  • Logan, S. W., Robinson, L. E., Wilson, A. E., & Lucas, W. A. (2012). Getting the fundamentals of movement: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of motor skill interventions in children. Child: Care, Health and Development, 38(3), 305–315. doi
N
Nature of science

How scientific knowledge is generated, justified and revised: tentative, evidence-based, theory-laden and socially situated. It needs explicit teaching rather than absorption through practical work (Lederman et al., 2002).

  • Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497–521. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary Three to Six (Implementation starting with 2023 Primary Three cohort; updated January 2026). moe.gov.sg
Numeracy

Confident, accurate use of number and measurement in everyday and subject contexts. Like literacy, it is a gateway to other subjects and is reshaped inside each of them.

  • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021e). Research review series: Mathematics. gov.uk
O
Oracy

Speaking and listening taught and assessed deliberately, rather than left to happen. Mercer et al. (2017) set out a framework for assessing it at age 11 to 12.

  • Mercer, N., Warwick, P., & Ahmed, A. (2017). An oracy assessment toolkit: Linking research and development in the assessment of students’ spoken language skills at age 11–12. Learning and Instruction, 48, 51–60. doi
  • Education Endowment Foundation. (2025b). Oral language interventions [Teaching and learning toolkit]. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk
P
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)

The knowledge of how to represent and teach a particular subject to particular learners (Shulman, 1986). Its home in this series is C05, which covers it and TPACK in depth.

C05 The knowledge that makes a subject teachable: useful representations and examples, and what makes a topic easy or hard for particular learners (Shulman, 1986). Shulman (1987) called it a "special amalgam of content and pedagogy".

  • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
  • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1–22. doi
  • Kansanen, P. (2009). Subject-matter didactics as a central knowledge base for teachers, or should it be called pedagogical content knowledge? Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 17(1), 29–39. doi
Phonics

Teaching the relationships between letters and sounds so that pupils can decode and spell. Systematic phonics has meta-analytic support (Ehri et al., 2001) and is one strand of reading, not the whole.

  • Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. doi
  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
  • Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department for Education and Skills.
Physical literacy

“The motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life”, in the definition quoted by Edwards et al. (2017), after Whitehead (2001).

  • Whitehead, M. (2001). The concept of physical literacy. European Journal of Physical Education, 6(2), 127–138. doi
  • Edwards, L. C., Bryant, A. S., Keegan, R. J., Morgan, K., & Jones, A. M. (2017). Definitions, foundations and associations of physical literacy: A systematic review. Sports Medicine, 47(1), 113–126. doi
Pólya’s four steps

A long-standing structure for problem solving: understand the problem, devise a plan, carry it out, and look back at the solution (Pólya, 1945).

  • Pólya, G. (1945). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Princeton University Press.
Productive struggle

Effortful attempts at a problem before instruction, where the difficulty is at the edge of what a learner can do and is followed by teaching that consolidates the attempt (Sinha & Kapur, 2021).

  • Sinha, T., & Kapur, M. (2021). When problem solving followed by instruction works: Evidence for productive failure. Review of Educational Research, 91(5), 761–798. doi
  • Kapur, M. (2008). Productive failure. Cognition and Instruction, 26(3), 379–424. doi
R
Reading comprehension

Understanding what is read. In the simple view it is the product of decoding and language comprehension, so it fails if either is weak (Gough & Tunmer, 1986).

  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
  • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
Reading wars

The long argument over how beginners should be taught to read, phonics first or meaning first. Most disagreement now is about emphasis, sequence and decodable texts, not whether to teach phonics (Castles et al., 2018).

  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
  • Goodman, K. S. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6(4), 126–135. doi
  • Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., & Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393–447. doi
S
Scarborough’s reading rope

A widely used elaboration of the simple view of reading, in which word recognition becomes increasingly automatic and language comprehension increasingly strategic as the two bundles twist together (Scarborough, 2001).

  • Scarborough, H. S. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In S. B. Neuman & D. K. Dickinson (Eds.), Handbook of early literacy research (pp. 97–110). Guilford Press.
  • Reading Universe. (n.d.). Understanding the simple view of reading and Scarborough’s rope. Retrieved September 18, 2026, from readinguniverse.org
Scientific inquiry

The practices by which scientists ask questions, gather and interpret evidence and build explanations. Singapore’s syllabus groups these as ways of thinking and doing, nature of scientific knowledge, and science in society (Ministry of Education, Singapore, 2022).

  • Ministry of Education, Singapore. (2022). Science teaching and learning syllabus: Primary Three to Six (Implementation starting with 2023 Primary Three cohort; updated January 2026). moe.gov.sg
  • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
  • Lederman, N. G., Abd-El-Khalick, F., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2002). Views of nature of science questionnaire: Toward valid and meaningful assessment of learners’ conceptions of nature of science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 39(6), 497–521. doi
Second language acquisition

The study of how people learn an additional language. Norris and Ortega (2000) found focused instruction effective and explicit types more effective than implicit ones.

  • Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50(3), 417–528. doi
  • Spada, N. (2007). Communicative language teaching: Current status and future prospects. In J. Cummins & C. Davison (Eds.), International handbook of English language teaching (pp. 271–288). Springer. doi
  • Ofsted. (2021d). Research review series: Languages. gov.uk
Signature pedagogies

The characteristic forms of teaching by which a field prepares newcomers, each with a surface, a deep and an implicit structure (Shulman, 2005).

  • Shulman, L. S. (2005). Signature pedagogies in the professions. Daedalus, 134(3), 52–59. doi
Simple view of reading

Reading modelled as the product of decoding and language comprehension, so a weak reader is weak on one strand, the other, or both, and each case needs different teaching (Gough & Tunmer, 1986).

  • Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10. doi
  • Castles, A., Rastle, K., & Nation, K. (2018). Ending the reading wars: Reading acquisition from novice to expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19(1), 5–51. doi
  • Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department for Education and Skills.
Spatial thinking in geography and GIS

Reasoning with maps, scale, location and spatial data, including geographic information systems, as a geographer’s practice (Ofsted, 2021c). Spatial ability as a psychological construct is covered in C09.

  • Ofsted. (2021c). Research review series: Geography. gov.uk
  • National Research Council. (2006). Learning to think spatially. National Academies Press.
STEM and STEAM

Labels for grouping science, technology, engineering and mathematics, with the arts added in STEAM. They describe arrangements of curriculum time, not a method, and their measured effects vary widely (Becker & Park, 2011).

  • Becker, K., & Park, K. (2011). Effects of integrative approaches among science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects on students’ learning: A preliminary meta-analysis. Journal of STEM Education, 12(5–6), 23–37. eric.ed.gov
  • National Academy of Engineering & National Research Council. (2014). STEM integration in K-12 education: Status, prospects, and an agenda for research (M. Honey, G. Pearson, & H. Schweingruber, Eds.). National Academies Press. doi
Strands of mathematical proficiency

Five interwoven and interdependent strands in the development of proficiency in mathematics: conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence, adaptive reasoning and productive disposition (Kilpatrick et al., 2001).

  • Kilpatrick, J., Swafford, J., & Findell, B. (Eds.). (2001). Adding it up: Helping children learn mathematics. National Academy Press. doi
Subject pedagogy (Fachdidaktik)

The continental European field devoted to teaching a particular subject, including what is worth teaching and why. Kansanen (2009) treats it as broader than pedagogical content knowledge.

  • Kansanen, P. (2009). Subject-matter didactics as a central knowledge base for teachers, or should it be called pedagogical content knowledge? Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 17(1), 29–39. doi
  • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
Substantive and disciplinary knowledge

The pair of terms now used across subject curricula: what a subject holds to be established, and how it establishes it (Ofsted, 2021a, 2021b). The distinction goes back to Schwab, and reached teaching through Shulman (1986).

  • Ofsted. (2021a). Research review series: History. gov.uk
  • Ofsted. (2021b). Research review series: Science. gov.uk
  • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. doi
W
Writing process

Writing understood as planning, drafting and revising rather than a single performance. Strategy instruction in these processes has the largest measured effect on adolescents’ writing quality (Graham & Perin, 2007).

  • Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 445–476. doi

Nearby

The primer itself, and the ones either side

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